Fusion Energy for Canada: A Forward-Looking Vision and Call for Action Table of Contents Foreword & Contributors .................................................................. 4 Executive Summary............................................................................. 6 1. Introduction....................................................................................11 2. The Case for Fusion......................................................................17 3. International Fusion Landscape................................................28 4. Canadian Fusion Landscape ......................................................34 5. Vision for Fusion in Canada........................................................40 6. Challenges and Opportunities ...................................................42 7. Strategy for Fusion in Canada ...................................................49 8. Fusion Roadmap ...........................................................................54 9. Conclusions, Recommendations, and Next Steps ...............58 References...........................................................................................60 This document presents a Canadian Nuclear Laboratories led vision, strategy, and roadmap for fusion energy in Canada. The organizations listed below have contributed to and reviewed this strategy with the aim to call for Canada to take action on developing a domestic fusion energy program and industry that will benefit Canadians and the global fusion sector. This document is intended to be a foundation for discussions and does not constitute a full body of work but does provide a holistic view of the journey that Canada needs to take in order to realize the potential of fusion energy. Contributors: • Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL): CNL is Canada’s premier nuclear science and technology organization, and a world leader in developing nuclear technology for peaceful and innovative applications. • Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL): Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) is a federal Crown corporation with a mandate to enable nuclear science and technology and to protect the environment by fulfilling the government of Canada’s radioactive waste and decommissioning responsibilities. • Helixos: Helixos works at the intersection of strategy consulting and technical advisory to commercialize cleantech, including fusion technologies. • General Fusion: General Fusion is a Canadian company based in Vancouver, British Columbia, which is developing a fusion demonstration machine based on magnetized target fusion. • Calian®: Calian® is a consulting company that helps people communicate, innovate, learn, stay safe, and lead healthy lives with confidence. • Type One Energy Group: Type One Energy Group is a company developing a stellarator fusion power system. It has an office established in Vancouver, Type One Energy Group Canada, which is a subsidiary of the U.S.-based parent company. • Fusion Energy Council of Canada (FECC): FECC is a not-for-profit dedicated to mobilizing human, financial, and other resources for the participation of Canadians and Canadian enterprises in fusion energy. • Stellarex: Stellarex is a fusion energy technology development company, focused on the stellarator approach to magnetic fusion. • Kyoto Fusioneering: Kyoto Fusioneering Ltd. is a spin-off from Kyoto University in Japan that aims to accelerate the realization of fusion energy with advanced fusion plant engineering and technology. • UNENE: UNENE is a network of universities, nuclear industry organizations, and government institutions dedicated to excellence in nuclear science, technology, and engineering. • Hatch: Hatch is a global multidisciplinary management, engineering and development consultancy, that provides consulting, operations support, technologies, process design, and project and construction management to clients in the mining and metals, energy, and infrastructure sectors. • TRIUMF: Canada’s national particle accelerator centre, TRIUMF is an internationally recognized consortium of 21 Canadian universities providing diagnostics measuring subatomic particles that are highly relevant to fusion research and a training ground for top talent. • Kinectrics: A leading international engineering and testing company based in Toronto, Kinectrics delivers innovative solutions to the clean energy market, including advanced fusion-enabling technologies. Fusion energy has the potential to provide far-reaching, positive impacts to Canada through reliable and resilient clean energy to support Net-Zero by 2050 and beyond. Fusion is a transformative innovation that has the potential to provide multiple decarbonization pathways through clean, secure, economic electricity and process heat. Internationally, there has been significant progress in both the public and private arenas in fusion development. Fusion R&D is accelerating in maturity, moving from science experiments to solving engineering problems through to now building demonstrations and prototypes. Currently, there are a total of 98 operating fusion experiments and demonstration facilities globally, with 13 under construction, and a further 33 planned. The market pull for commercial fusion has grown rapidly in the last five years, with over 43 private fusion companies operating globally, attracting more than $8.2 billion* in funding. Furthermore, international governments are taking bold actions to support their own fusion programs and private industry by establishing national strategies, developing supportive policies and regulatory approaches, as well as allocating funding and resources. * Unless otherwise noted, all dollar figures in this document are in Canadian dollars. Global Fusion Momentum: • 98 Operating fusion experiments • 13 Demonstration facilities under construction • 33 Demonstration facilities planned • 43 Private fusion companies globally • >CA $8 billion Total investment in private fusion companies Canada’s Contribution to Fusion: Canada has existing expertise in many of the capabilities required to develop a mature fusion industry. Deuterium and tritium production and supply, storage, recycling, and handling technology for fueling fusion power plants are prime areas of Canadian expertise that can be leveraged in the global fusion energy market. Canadian nuclear industry capabilities can also be adapted to support fusion development, including robotics, remote handling, irradiation, materials science, thermal-hydraulics, reactor physics, activated waste management, nuclear plant operations and safety culture, and more. With many overlaps in expertise, technologies, and workforce, the continued development of nuclear fission and fusion are synergistic in Canada. Amongst its nuclear nation peers (e.g., France, Germany, Japan, UK, and U.S.), Canada currently provides the least government support for the development of fusion R&D and a fusion industry. Canada did have a robust national fusion program in the past, but has since then remained active primarily through the initiatives of academic/scientific institutions and entrepreneurs. To accelerate the development and deployment of fusion technologies in Canada, there will need to be far greater investment in both the public and private sectors. Leveraging our capabilities and providing more support to grow the domestic fusion sector, Canada is in a strategic position to significantly contribute to the growing global fusion industry and capitalize on significant economic opportunities for the nation. Economic Benefits and Emission Reduction: Commercial fusion energy can deliver significant economic benefits for Canada. The estimated cumulative economic benefits to Canada by 2100 for the broad deployment of domestic and international fusion plants range from $232 billion in the baseline scenario, up to $523 billion in the transformational scenario, increasing in each scenario with greater investment and enabling policy levers. There is the potential to create thousands of jobs across the economy for the construction and ongoing operations of fusion power plants, as well as to service international export markets. Domestic plant construction alone can result in over 63,000 new jobs by 2050. Some of these potential benefits are attributable to the export of products and services to support international fusion power plant deployments. With the appropriate strategic investments, Canada could access export markets with a cumulative value of over $147 billion by 2100. While accelerating fusion energy technology development is critical, the extent to which potential opportunities can emerge may also depend on the availability of tritium to support the deployment of domestic and international fusion power plants. This highlights the importance of Canada’s world-leading capabilities in the production, supply, and handling of tritium, to support the global industry and maximize the potential benefits. Fusion can also contribute to Canada’s decarbonization goals to reach net-zero emissions by 2050 and beyond. There is an opportunity for nuclear fission and fusion power plants to work synergistically to provide safe, reliable electricity and industrial heat, supporting Canada’s decarbonization efforts. Fission brings established infrastructure and dependable energy production, vital for ensuring consistent energy supply. Fusion, with inherently safer reactions and minimal long-term radioactive waste, offers a sustainable solution. Combining these technologies creates a diverse energy portfolio, guaranteeing stability, flexibility, and advancement towards cleaner energy futures. By 2050, the deployment of domestic fusion power plants can reduce cumulative emissions by up to 75 Mt, 121 Mt, and 192 Mt CO2-eq for the baseline, action, and transformational scenarios, respectively. By 2100, the broad adoption of fusion energy has the potential to reduce Canada’s emissions by over 88 Mt CO2-eq per year, representing a 13.3% reduction on 2020 levels, assuming that it only displaces electricity production. Cumulative economic benefits through 2100 for Canada with full tritium availability: • Baseline Scenario: $232 billion • Action Scenario: $344 billion • Transformational Scenario: $523 billion For Canada’s nascent fusion industry to deliver sustainable and enduring impact, the challenges and opportunities must be understood across the policy, market, technical, and supply chain domains. The lack of a fusion strategy in Canada hinders R&D and growth of the industry. In addition, a risk-informed regulatory framework is required for Canada’s nascent fusion industry to deliver sustainable and enduring impacts. The scale of both federal and provincial investments in fusion energy is low in comparison to other Tier 1 economies and nuclear nations. This is apparent in the lack of dedicated, large-scale, comprehensive centres of excellence for fusion R&D or associated national experimental facilities. The broader Canadian industry needs further investment to become part of a fusion energy industrial supply chain or to become a key customer and adopter of fusion power plants. Without this investment, there is a significant risk that Canada may be left behind by its international peers, and fail to capitalize on substantial economic, social, and decarbonization opportunities. Vision, Strategy, and Roadmap: The long-term vision is that fusion will provide a clean and safe energy source enabling a high standard of living in Canada and around the world. Fusion power plants will be supported by a robust supply chain and by several Canadian centres of excellence in fusion energy science and technology. As part of a renewed Canadian national fusion program, this vision is achievable through the implementation of a comprehensive strategy, guided by a roadmap for development. Internationally, the technical feasibility of generating energy from fusion has not been fully demonstrated. Key areas that need further development include the extraction of energy from the fusion reactions to generate electricity, the fusion fuel cycle, the formation and sustainment of fusion plasmas, and tritium production, extraction, and removal. In addition to ensuring the materials like metals and alloys necessary for the fusion fuel cycle and tritium production are available, the raw materials supply chain for these components also needs to be in place to sustain the operation of the plant. Fusion power plant demonstrations are essential to showcase the scientific, engineering, operational, and economic feasibility of these integrated systems. In response to these challenges, a fusion strategy has been developed based on where Canada is now, and where Canada needs to be in the development and implementation of fusion energy. In the near term, it is expected that several fusion prototypes will be operating in Canada and/or elsewhere in the world. Based on technology development timelines for leading fusion companies, the demonstration and adoption of fusion energy is expected to occur in the 2030s and 2040s with global expansion of this energy source beyond 2050. Timeframes Summary: • Near Term (2024–2034): DEMONSTRATION of fusion power plants in Canada and/or elsewhere in North America, Europe, and Asia • Medium Term (2035–2050): ADOPTION of fusion energy in Canada and in select regions, transitioning to mature commercialization • Long Term (2050+): EXPANSION of fusion energy in Canada and globally across all continents Strategic Pillars: 1. Research & Development: Build international collaborations and partnerships; Leverage, grow, and adapt existing Canadian capabilities; Leverage R&D from CANDUs, small modular reactors (SMRs), and advanced reactors; Build fusion component and test facilities. 2. Demonstration & Deployment: Build and operate fusion experiments; Build and operate fusion demonstration plants; Establish consortia to share risks and rewards for the first builds of commercial-scale fusion prototypes. 3. Supporting Services: Develop a Canadian fusion energy industry supply chain; Develop fusion fuel cycle infrastructure; Develop distribution and export infrastructure for tritium and tritium production technologies. 4. Skills, Capabilities, & Engagement: Establish and grow education and training programs at Canadian universities and colleges; Engage with community groups, including indigenous communities, early to facilitate co-creation of the emerging fusion industry and gain public support and social acceptance. 5. Policy & Regulation: Develop a pan-Canadian fusion energy policy and strategy; Engage regulatory organizations early to develop appropriate regulations for fusion; Develop and support international policies and commercial arrangements for export/import of lithium, lithium-6, and/or enriched lithium; Participate in ongoing international efforts to develop and harmonize standards, policies, and regulations for the licensing of fusion energy systems. Call to Action: We are calling on the Canadian government to take action to invest in developing a fusion ecosystem in order to capitalize on the economic benefits available from the domestic implementation of fusion energy and supporting the international nuclear sector. Further, the government should incorporate fusion energy into their vision and strategy for clean energy development, as it aligns with their existing clean energy strategy. This vision can be realized with the 10 recommendations below: 1. Establish a pan-Canadian national fusion strategy supported by investment 2. Establish partnerships with other nations in the development of fusion 3. Grow and develop a fusion energy industry supply chain 4. Build education and training programs for fusion 5. Establish Canadian Fusion Centres of Excellence 6. Build fusion experimental facilities for testing and training 7. Build prototype/demonstration fusion power plants 8. Engage, inform, and prepare key industrial sectors for use of fusion energy 9. Engage regulatory entities to develop the licensing framework for fusion energy 10. Implement a process for community consultation and stakeholder engagement 1.1. What is Fusion Energy? Fusion energy is created in the core of the Sun when multiple hydrogen atoms react through a multi-step process to release energetic helium, photons, and other particles. The fuels, at high temperature, density, and pressure in the Sun, are held together by massive gravitational forces. Fusion energy refers to electrical and thermal energy derived from fusion that results from the conversion of mass into energy. Scientists and engineers around the world are working to develop fusion technologies capable of achieving fusion energy on Earth and use it as a clean and reliable energy source. A fusion power plant is a complex technology consisting of the following key systems, as illustrated in Figure 1: • Plasma Confinement System – The system responsible for creating and maintaining the plasma state where the fusion reaction takes place. There are various concepts to how this system operates, for example, magnetic and/or inertial confinement fusion. • Fuel Management System – The system responsible for injecting and circulating the fuel, which usually consists of hydrogen isotopes, into the plasma system and from this system for purification, recycling, and reuse. This system may include a breeding blanket which absorbs neutrons from the fusion reaction to breed tritium fuel from lithium, to ensure the sustainable production of fuel. • Power Conversion System – The system which converts the energy of the fusion reaction into electricity. This process is typically conceptualized using a steam cycle with a steam generator, turbine, and electric generator, like those used in conventional power plants. Novel approaches are exploring direct energy conversion from the fusion reaction. No fusion technology or facility has yet demonstrated net engineering energy gain, which occurs when the amount of energy produced by a system exceeds the energy required to operate and maintain the system. Within the last 20 years, a number of fusion experiments have worked towards this milestone, with the recent achievement of the National Ignition Facility (NIF) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in the United States achieving scientific energy breakeven**, which refers to the energy produced by a fusion reaction exceeding the laser energy used to drive it. ** The term ‘scientific breakeven’ is used throughout this document and represents the point where the energy produced from a fusion reaction is greater than or equal to the energy imparted directly to the fuel producing the reaction. This is distinct from ‘engineering breakeven’ which represents the point where the energy produced from the fusion reaction is greater than or equal to the energy required to power all systems within the fusion power plant. 1.2. Why Fusion Energy? Fusion energy has the potential to transform the world’s energy supply, help meet growing global energy demand, and make a meaningful contribution to the decarbonization of energy systems. The benefits of using fusion as an emerging energy source are manyfold and include its high energy density, reliability of energy supply, enhanced safety, no carbon emissions, and absence of long-lived radioactive waste, as shown below: • High energy density: Fusion has a higher energy density than any other process achievable on Earth, with four million times more energy than a chemical reaction, such as the burning of coal, oil, or gas, and four times as much as nuclear fission reactions. • Reliable energy supply: Fusion can provide baseload electricity that does not depend on environmental conditions (such as wind or sun), and is location independent, making it deployable anywhere to support a diverse electricity grid and even potentially deployable to off-grid locations. • Enhanced safety: A large-scale nuclear accident is not possible in a fusion power plant. The fusion reaction requires precisely controlled conditions to start and maintain the reaction, and there is no risk of a chain reaction that could lead to a meltdown. • No carbon emissions: During operation, fusion power plants do not generate any greenhouse gas emissions and use a small amount of raw materials compared to other energy sources. • No long-lived radioactive waste: Unlike nuclear fission, fusion plants are not expected to produce high-activity or long-lived nuclear waste requiring significant investment and infrastructure for its lifecycle management. Low- to medium-level radioactive waste will be produced and can be managed through already-established disposal pathways. To address climate change, Canada has joined over 120 countries in a commitment to have net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. While Canada’s energy mix consists of zero and low-carbon energy sources, about 75% of Canada’s primary energy still comes from fossil fuels. Therefore, a multitude of energy sources will be required to serve Canada’s residential, commercial, transportation, industrial, agricultural, and forestry sectors without emitting large amounts of greenhouse gases. There is an opportunity for fusion energy to be an important part of this mix. 1.3. Why Act Now? International advancement and momentum in fusion science and technology (S&T) over recent years, coupled with newly available advanced manufacturing and computing capabilities, including quantum computing, means that developing a fusion power plant that generates more energy than it consumes is closer to implementation than ever before. Specifically, advancements in electronics, high-temperature super-conducting magnets, high-efficiency and rapid pulse rate lasers, materials, computer simulations, and machine learning are helping to expedite fusion development. Fusion research and development (R&D) is accelerating in maturity, moving from science experiments to solving engineering problems and building demonstrations and prototypes. International governments are taking bold actions to support their own fusion R&D programs and private industry by establishing national strategies, developing supportive policies and regulatory frameworks, and allocating funding and resources. According to a Bloomberg Intelligence valuation, if successful in producing net electricity, the fusion industry could be valued at around US$40 trillion (CA$55 trillion) in the future. International public and private sectors have been accelerating their efforts with large investments in promising fusion startups and R&D activities. To date, at least $8.2 billion of private funds have been invested to address the scientific and engineering challenge of developing fusion power plants with net energy gain, including many fusion prototypes. Several private sector fusion companies claim that their prototypes will be able to demonstrate net energy gain within the next five years, with subsequent commercial deployment anticipated in the 2030s. Commercial deployment is generally defined as a fusion power plant that is generating and selling electricity and/or heat to the grid or other customers. As part of a diversified zero-carbon energy portfolio, Canada should continue to invest in both nuclear fission and fusion for a secure future in sustainable energy and synergistic pairing between fusion technologies and our CANDU fleet for the production and use of tritium. Key Takeaways on Why Act Now: • International advancement and momentum in fusion science and technology • Acceleration in public and private investment • $55 trillion market opportunity • Canada’s pre-established tritium and nuclear expertise and capabilities 1.4. Why Canada? Canada holds distinct advantages and characteristics that position it well to build an industry that not only services domestic demand but also significantly contributes to the growing global fusion sector. These include deuterium and tritium fuel availability and expertise, existing synergistic capabilities from the nuclear industry, a world-class supply chain and ecosystem, and a large domestic energy market: • Fuel availability and expertise: The fuels used in fusion reactions are available in Canada. Deuterium can be readily extracted from water, using Canadian technology. An inventory of tritium can be produced as a by-product of Canada’s CANDU fleet and can theoretically be bred within a lithium blanket in a fusion power plant. Further, deuterium and tritium production, storage, recycling, and handling technology for fueling fusion power plants are key areas of Canadian expertise. • Strong existing capabilities: Canada has many of the capabilities required to develop a mature fusion industry. Fusion and fission are synergistic and many existing capabilities within the Canadian nuclear industry can also be adapted to support fusion development, including robotics, remote handling, materials science, thermal-hydraulics, and reactor physics. • World-class supply chain and ecosystem: Canada has a mature supply chain and a world-class ecosystem of academic, government laboratories, industrial, and regulatory stakeholders, with proven success collaborating in complex emerging industries. Supporting this industrial base is a highly skilled workforce and a supportive business environment that fosters innovation and growth. • Large domestic market: Canada is a large user of energy and is in the top 10 nations in the world for energy consumption per capita. Fusion can enable Canada to maintain its prominence as an energy superpower while ensuring independence of energy supply and price, sustainability, and compliance with zero-carbon targets. Of the G7 nations (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, and U.S.), Canada currently provides the least government support for the development of fusion R&D and industrial development, both in total investment and on a per capita basis. All other G7 members either have dedicated national fusion programs with committed annual funding or are hosting several significant fusion projects. However, despite a lack of funding and national policy for fusion, Canada has remained active in fusion development, primarily through the initiatives of academic/scientific institutions, and a small number of private sector entrepreneurs. Among these groups is General Fusion, a Canadian private company that is among the leading private fusion ventures in the world. Type One Energy Group, and its Canadian subsidiary based in Vancouver, are also broadening the spectrum of technologies present on the national landscape with its stellarator approach. The University of Alberta and the University of Saskatchewan have maintained small-scale fusion-related R&D programs and have internationally recognized fusion scientists. McGill University has worked on compression science supporting magnetized target fusion, including liquid compression stability analysis and proof of concept experiments on-site. TRIUMF, Canada’s national particle accelerator, has extensive experience in fusion-relevant diagnostics and has recently been collaborating with the private fusion industry on the development of state-of-the-art neutron diagnostics. The Nuclear Science Department at Simon Fraser University owns and operates a high-energy neutron generator and has also been involved in the development of neutron diagnostics for private fusion. The University of Sherbrooke has experience with cutting-edge electronics. However, to accelerate the development and deployment of fusion technologies in Canada, there will need to be far greater investment by both the public and private sectors. Canada has existing expertise in many of the capabilities required to develop a mature fusion industry, as shown in Figure 2. Deuterium and tritium production, storage, recycling, and handling technology for fueling fusion power plants are prime areas of Canadian expertise that can be leveraged in the global fusion energy market. In particular, materials subject to irradiation by high-energy fusion plasmas and neutrons will be one of the key technology areas, offering scope for a wide variety of Canadian contributions by private companies and public institutions, such as Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL) and Ontario Power Generation (OPG). Many of these areas have been identified as priority supply chain areas by the private fusion industry. In addition to its tritium expertise, CNL’s diverse S&T capabilities and infrastructure can be adapted, upgraded, and applied for fusion S&T to support both domestic and international projects and initiatives. Other capabilities within the Canadian nuclear industry can also be adapted to support fusion development, including robotics, remote handling, materials science, thermal-hydraulics, and reactor physics. Canada also has significant lithium deposits and resources. Lithium is a critical mineral in the transition to renewable energies, and demand for lithium for fusion energy systems will be high and potentially essential for tritium production, putting Canada in a strong position on this front. 1.5. Approach to Strategy Development To form a forward-looking vision, strategy, and roadmap for fusion energy in Canada, various elements were methodically considered: 1. Understand the Current Status 2. Define the Vision 3. Identify Challenges and Opportunities 4. Develop Strategic Pillars and Plan 5. Develop Roadmap and Action Plan Fusion represents the next evolutionary step in humanity’s ingenuity by embracing the elegant and powerful processes of the stars to fuel the sustainable development of modern life. Fusion has the potential to provide reliable, clean energy to support Net-Zero by 2050 and beyond. Fusion provides another baseload energy technology for clean electricity and process heat. This technology can offer a complementary addition to existing clean energy solutions in providing energy independence and electricity security to Canada’s grid and industrial base. In addition, a fusion industry could deliver significant economic benefits to Canada with opportunities for domestic demonstration facilities and international export. 2.1. Decarbonization Pathways: Clean Electricity and Process Heat Fusion can provide clean energy through the supply of electricity and process heat. With most of the nation’s energy supply coming from greenhouse-gas-emitting sources, there is an urgent need to move towards a net-zero emissions economy to avoid the worst potential impacts of climate change. Canada’s total primary energy supply is mostly from (~75%) fossil fuel sources, which generate greenhouse gas emissions and other types of air pollution. By analyzing the total greenhouse gas emissions (660 Mt CO2 eq reference case for 2030) by economic sector: • Oil & Gas: 28% • Transport: 26% • Buildings: 12% • Heavy Industry: 11% • Agriculture: 11% • Waste & Others: 8% • Electricity: 4% Through the supply of electricity and process heat, fusion energy can be an important part of the future technology mix to decarbonize the oil and gas, transport, heavy industry, and electricity sectors. Fusion plants can convert the energy generated from the fusion reaction into electricity through a steam-turbine power conversion cycle or through direct energy conversion. Fusion power plants co-located with industrial facilities can provide process heat for their operations and/or create valuable products, such as hydrogen. Low/zero-carbon process heat will be important for hard-to-abate sectors, such as steel manufacturing. Case Study: Steel Manufacturing in Canada Steel is a key component of modern life, enabling a wide variety of physical infrastructure, transportation equipment, machinery, and appliances. Canada is in the top 20 nations currently producing approximately 13 Mt of steel per year. Steel production is energy-intensive, with iron being produced in blast furnaces, direct reduction furnaces, or smelting furnaces. Smelting is mainly done by means of burning coke or hydrocarbons, creating a reducing mixture rich in carbon monoxide. The reduction of iron oxides through this approach produces carbon dioxide, which is typically emitted into the atmosphere, after thermal energy recovery and particulate collection. Fusion energy, utilizing its electricity and/or process heat, can produce hydrogen to chemically reduce the iron oxide and replace the use of existing hydrocarbons. Based on Canada’s steel production, a fusion plant with an electric design capacity of 1 GWe and an uptime (or availability) of 80% would enable steel production of approximately 2 Mt per year. This energy demand equates to a requirement of approximately 7 large-scale fusion power plants to decarbonize the entire steel industry in Canada. 2.2. Energy Security Fusion can offer energy diversification, energy security, and complement the penetration of other zero-carbon energy sources by supporting grid stability. Fusion utilizes accessible fuels and materials, such as deuterium and tritium, which can be available in Canada. With the ability to source these fuels domestically and reduce the country’s reliance on foreign supplies of fuel, Canada’s national security posture is reinforced. These fuels are energy dense and can be stored onsite or in centralized locations to provide inventories of fuel. Fusion can provide baseload electricity and process heat without the need to rely on fossil fuel extraction or import. Fusion energy does not depend on environmental conditions (such as wind or sun) and is location independent, making it potentially deployable anywhere in Canada to support a diverse electricity grid and to provide reliable zero-carbon electricity to off-grid locations. 2.3. Economic, Social, and Decarbonization Benefits Fusion deployment will result in a range of economic, environmental, and social benefits for many nations. International fusion deployment potentially offers Canada significant economic and social benefits through the export of products and services, such as deuterium, tritium, and fusion technologies and expertise. Additionally, domestic deployment within Canada will result in direct economic benefits attributable to fusion energy output (i.e., electricity, process heat, and downstream products, such as hydrogen), economic and social benefits associated with the development of a fusion supply chain and industry, and significant environmental benefits through the decarbonization of energy production. Modelling Scenarios: • Domestic Deployment Scenarios: Baseline (status quo), Action (limited effort/funding), Transformational (high levels of investment, coordinated mega-projects, streamlined regulations). • Tritium Availability Scenarios: - Tritium constrained: Canadian tritium production constrained to 1.8 kg/year, increasing to 3.6 kg/yr in 2075, and 5.4 kg/yr in 2100. Non-Canadian producers come online in 2070 (1 kg/yr to 2 kg/yr in 2095). - Non-tritium constrained: No supply constraint on tritium. • Timeframes: - Near Term (2024–2034): Demonstration - Medium Term (2035–2050): Adoption - Long Term (2050+): Expansion Economic Benefits Summary: • Total economic benefits by 2100 under Tritium-constrained scenario: $93.56B - $98.45B (Baseline) up to $192.36B - $203.30B (Action). • Total economic benefits by 2100 under Non-tritium-constrained scenario: $232.51B - $237.40B (Baseline), $333.78B - $344.72B (Action), and $502.76B - $523.72B (Transformational). Social Benefits: • Job creation: In the transformational scenario, domestic plant construction results in over 63,000 new jobs by 2050 (approx. 26,000 direct and 37,000 indirect). Over 3,700 supply chain jobs and over 860 on-site operations jobs created by 2050. • Export workforce: >200 FTE jobs by 2030, >240 by 2050, expanding to >3,000 between 2060 and 2070. Decarbonization Benefits: • By 2050, domestic fusion deployment can reduce cumulative emissions by up to 75 Mt (Baseline), 121 Mt (Action), and 192 Mt CO2-eq (Transformational). • By 2100, cumulative emissions reductions reach 906 Mt (Baseline), 1,995 Mt (Action), and 3,368 Mt CO2-eq (Transformational). Internationally, there is significant progress in both the public and private arenas for fusion development. As of March 2024, there are a total of 98 operating fusion experiments and demonstration facilities globally, with 13 under construction, and a further 33 planned. These fusion devices cover a diversity of configurations, including tokamaks, stellarators, heliotrons, laser-based inertial confinement, magnetized target, inertial electrostatic fusors (IEC), magnetic mirrors, z-pinches, field-reversed configuration (FRC) plasmoids, and other alternative concepts. 3.1. Public Fusion Landscape (Key Countries/Regions): • China: Key bodies include MOST, MOE, ASIPP, CNNC, CAEP. Major tokamaks: EAST (Hefei), HL-2A(M) (SWIP, Chengdu), J-TEXT (HUST). Target pulse-powered plant by 2028; contributes ~9% to ITER; developing CFETR. • European Union (EU): EUROfusion programme based on EU Roadmap to Realisation of Fusion Energy (preparing for ITER and DEMO). Major institutes: CEA (France), IPP (Germany), CIEMAT (Spain), Italian R&D facilities. • India: Joined ITER in 2005 (~9% contribution). ITER-India managed by IPR under DAE. Operating tokamaks: ADITYA and Steady State Tokamak (SST). • Japan: Overseen by QST and NIFS. Operates JT-60SA (largest operational tokamak). Launched 'Fusion Energy Innovation Strategy' in 2023. • Republic of Korea: KSTAR operated by NFRI (achieved 100M °C for >20 sec in 2020). Pre-conceptual study on K-DEMO (2,200 MW). • Russia: ITER founder (~9% contribution). Primary facility: Kurchatov Institute. Upgraded T-15MD tokamak operating under FP-3 DETS program. • United Kingdom: UKAEA hosts JET (decommissioning/repurposing in 2024); selected site for STEP (target 2040 prototype). Regulated outside legacy fission by EA and HSE. • United States: DOE (Office of Science, NNSA, ARPA-E) funding decadal vision. NIF achieved scientific ignition in 2022. US ITER contribution ~9% construction, ~14% operations. Public investment comparison shows Canada significantly behind peers (UK, France, Spain invest >10% of energy RD&D budget into fusion). 3.2. Private Fusion Landscape: Over 43 private fusion companies globally with >US$6.2B (CA$8.2B) total investment. 65% utilize deuterium-tritium (DT) fuel. Notable private companies include Commonwealth Fusion Systems, TAE Technologies, Shine Technologies, Helion, General Fusion, Zap Energy, Tokamak Energy, Marvel Fusion, and others. Historical Context: • 1970s–1997: Canada had a National Fusion Program (NFP) and Canadian Fusion Fuels Technology Project (CFFTP), with STOR-M tokamak and Tokamak de Varennes. NFP terminated in 1997 due to federal deficit reduction. • 2003/2004: Canada withdrew from ITER negotiations. • 2019: CNL refurbished its world-class Tritium Facility ($40M investment, licensed to handle 1 MCi / ~100g tritium, store 2.5 MCi / ~250g). • 2020: Canada and ITER signed a Nuclear Cooperation Agreement. • 2024: UK and Canada signed an MOU on fusion energy cooperation. Key Active Canadian Institutions: • Government/Labs: AECL, CNL (tritium and nuclear sciences), CNSC (nuclear regulator), NRCan. • Universities & Research Centres: McGill University (shock waves, fluid dynamics), McMaster University (engineering physics), Ontario Tech University (plasma APEL lab), Queen’s University, Simon Fraser University (neutron generator), TRIUMF (particle accelerator diagnostics), University of Alberta (lasers, plasma physics), UBC (computational fluid dynamics), University of Ottawa, University of Saskatchewan (STOR-M tokamak), University of Sherbrooke (photon-to-digital converters), University of Toronto. • NGOs: Canadian Nuclear Society (CNS), Fusion Energy Council of Canada (FECC). • Industry & Utilities: Bruce Power, Kinectrics (tritium handling, irradiated materials, skids), Laurentis Energy Partners, New Brunswick Power, Ontario Power Generation (OPG), Organization of Canadian Nuclear Industries (OCNI). • Private Fusion Companies: General Fusion (Richmond/Vancouver, BC - MTF, building LM26), Fuse Energy Technologies (Montreal), Hope Innovations (Mississauga), Norax Canada (Lévis), Plasmionique (Varennes), Type One Energy Group Canada (Vancouver). A transformational vision for Canada's fusion future across three lenses: 1. National Benefits: • Canada has a net-zero economy. • Canada has a large fleet of large-scale and small-scale fusion facilities. • Canada has fusion power plants operating in every province and territory. • Canadian fusion technology is economic and competitive. • Canadian fusion power plants are augmenting other zero-carbon energy sources. • Canadian utilities, industry, and resource sectors are using fusion plants to supply electricity and industrial heat. • Canada is a home and headquarters for private sector fusion companies and vendors. • Canada has a fully developed and complete fusion power industrial supply chain. 2. Capabilities: • Canada has several national “Centres of Excellence in Fusion” at universities and government laboratories to train HQP and develop innovations. • Canada provides effective and risk-informed safety, licensing, and regulatory oversight frameworks. • Canada has operating storage facilities to manage intermediate- and low-level radioactive materials from activation. • Canada’s stakeholders, including Indigenous communities, are engaged as partners, supporters, and benefactors. 3. International Leadership: • Canada is an international supplier for deuterium and tritium fusion fuels, advanced materials, and lithium. • Canada is an international supplier for fusion components, fuel cycle components, instrumentation, and simulators. • Canada is an international supplier for fusion expertise and services (design, operations, financing). • Canada takes a leadership role in maturing international non-proliferation practices. • Canada becomes a leading exporter of tritium fuel and tritium breeding/fuel-cycle technologies. 6.1. Policy Gaps: • Lack of a dedicated pan-Canadian fusion policy hinders R&D and private investment. • Need for proactive international policy alignment (UK, US, EU, Japan, Korea) and full activation of agreements (e.g., ITER). • Need for modern, risk-informed regulatory frameworks separate from legacy fission rules, as well as clear non-proliferation frameworks for tritium safeguards. 6.2. Investment and Market: • Government funding in fusion in Canada is among the lowest in Tier 1 nuclear nations ($13.7M in 2022 vs hundreds of millions in US and UK). • Missing large-scale national experimental centres of excellence. • Need for pivot-support programs and IP translation to leverage spin-off benefits into adjacent sectors (quantum computing, space, aviation, transport, mining, telecommunications, medical). 6.3. Technical Challenges: • Demonstration of net engineering energy gain. • Development of Balance-of-Plant (BOP) systems and power conversion optimization. • Closing the fusion fuel cycle: lithium breeding blanket development, tritium extraction, enriched Lithium-6 supply. • Need for prototype and pilot demonstration plants. 6.4. Supply Chain Challenges: • Scaling up tritium fuel supply infrastructure (handling, transport packaging, high-flow rate testing). • Establishing certainty and scale for high-tech components (magnets, laser optics, advanced first-wall materials, semiconductors). • Ensuring eligibility of fusion supply chain for clean energy grants, tax credits, and loan guarantees. The strategy is organized under five strategic pillars: 1. Research & Development: • Build international collaborations and partnerships. • Leverage, grow, and adapt existing Canadian nuclear capabilities (materials, thermal-hydraulics, remote handling). • Leverage R&D from CANDUs, SMRs, and advanced reactors. • Build fusion component and material test facilities. 2. Demonstration & Deployment: • Build and operate domestic fusion experiments. • Build and operate fusion demonstration plants. • Establish public-private consortia to share risks and rewards for commercial prototype builds. 3. Supporting Services: • Develop a domestic fusion supply chain. • Develop fusion fuel cycle infrastructure (re-establish heavy water/deuterium production, CANDU tritium production with Li-6 targets, expansion of Tritium Removal Facilities). • Develop distribution, transport, and export infrastructure for tritium. 4. Skills, Capabilities, & Engagement: • Establish university and college training programs for Highly Qualified Personnel (HQP). • Early and continual consultation and co-creation with Indigenous communities, municipal governments, and public stakeholders. 5. Policy & Regulation: • Develop a pan-Canadian fusion energy policy and strategy. • Engage CNSC and international regulators to establish tailored, risk-informed fusion licensing. • Establish commercial policies for lithium and enriched lithium-6 trade. • Harmonize international standards and safety protocols. Near-Term Roadmap (2024–2034) - Vision: Demonstration • R&D: Invest in national centres of excellence and research facilities; build partnerships with UK, US, EU. • Demonstration: Provide incentives for demonstration plants; engage utilities; issue RFPs. • Supporting Services: Demonstrate large-scale tritium production; supply tritium/services to ITER; expand CANDU tritium extraction. • Skills & Engagement: Establish university programs; engage public and Indigenous communities; provide internships. • Policy & Regulation: Establish pan-Canadian strategy; join ITER as Associate Member; establish risk-informed licensing. Medium-Term Roadmap (2035–2050) - Vision: Adoption • R&D: Test and improve systems in R&D facilities; incorporate operational lessons. • Demonstration: Deploy first commercial fusion power plants in Canada; evaluate sites; satisfy new electricity/heat demand. • Supporting Services: Scale up deuterium/tritium production; offer revenue-generating services globally. • Skills & Engagement: Scale workforce for commercial operations; cross-train adjacent industries; secure social license. • Policy & Regulation: Regulate commercial fusion plants; adjust standards internationally. Long-Term Roadmap (2050+) - Vision: Expansion • R&D: Continuous efficiency gains and advanced materials R&D. • Demonstration: Mass commercial cost reduction through economies of scale and mature supply chain. • Supporting Services: Global service export leadership; ongoing fuel provision. • Skills & Engagement: Strong multi-generational fusion workforce; full community integration. • Policy & Regulation: Lead transition of broader energy technologies to fusion to ensure permanent net-zero. 9.1. Conclusions: Fusion offers zero-carbon, safe, baseload power and process heat, positioning Canada to achieve true energy security and economic prosperity. While Canada possesses world-class nuclear expertise and tritium infrastructure, it requires immediate national strategic policy and public-private investment to avoid falling behind international peers. 9.2. Recommendations: 1. Establish a pan-Canadian national fusion strategy supported by investment. 2. 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