DIRECTED ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES INSIGHTS PAPER Australian Government - Department of Defence, Science and Technology EDTAS: EMERGING DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT SYMPOSIUM Noetic GROUP ABOUT THIS PAPER Includes information that supports a broad baseline understanding of related technology concepts. These may or may not be directly applicable, in all contexts, to the definition of Directed Energy. Highlights case studies applicable to, or complementing, Directed Energy. The author of this paper is Michelle Todd. Michelle is a Director at Noetic Group and a keen advocate for future’s thinking techniques which shape Australia’s strategic position. Noetic would like to acknowledge the participation of subject matter experts, across academia, industry and Defence. The insights gained throughout the stakeholder engagement process was critical in the development of this paper and Noetic thanks each individual for dedicating time to support Australia’s future in Directed Energy technologies. Noetic would also like to thank Defence Science and Technology and the University of New South Wales, for their contribution to, and review of, this paper. This Insights Paper was designed by Noetic’s creative Design Team and Michelle would like to personally thank the team for their tremendous efforts. CONTACT AND FURTHER INFORMATION www.dst.defence.gov.au/edtas #EDTAS www.noeticgroup.com INTRODUCTION (Page 1) - AIM (Page 2) - SCOPE AND FOCUS (Page 2) GENESIS (Page 3) - OVERVIEW (Page 4) - EVOLUTION (Page 10) - HERE AND NOW (Page 18) - DEFENCE APPLICATIONS (Page 20) - AUSTRALIA’S CONTRIBUTION (Page 30) - DIRECTED ENERGY SYSTEM: OVERVIEW (Page 33) TECHNOLOGY (Page 36) - ENABLING: Today (Page 38), Tomorrow (Page 39) - POWER SOURCE: Today (Page 40), Tomorrow (Page 41) - LASER/RF OUTPUT (INCLUDING AMPLIFICATION): Today (Page 42), Tomorrow (Page 43) - EFFECTS & MITIGATION / COUNTERING: Today (Page 46), Tomorrow (Page 49) - OPERATORS & SAFETY: Today (Page 52), Tomorrow (Page 54) NON-TECHNICAL (Page 57) - STRATEGY: Sovereign Capability (Page 58), Broader Challenges for Defence & National Security (Page 59) - FUNDING & RESOURCES: Funding (Page 59), Resources, Skills & Attributes (Page 59), Collaboration (Page 61) - ETHICS & PERCEPTION: Conventions, Treaties & Regulations (Page 62), Public Perception (Page 65) - ACRONYMS (Page 66) - APPENDIX A: SME INTERVIEWS (Page 69) Defence Science and Technology (DST) is responsible for the development of key Defence technological capabilities. DST delivers valuable scientific advice and innovative solutions for Defence and National Security, and is recognised as a national leader in safeguarding Australia. As part of their role in exploring emerging technologies, DST is seeking to understand the challenges and threats emerging from Directed Energy (DE) technologies. The themes for the Emerging Disruptive Technology Assessment Symposiums (EDTAS) have been derived from the Next Generation Technology Fund (NGTF), a forward-looking program focussing on research opportunities in emerging and future technologies – providing an investment of AUD 730 million dollars between 2016-2026. The 2016 Defence White Paper outlined that over the next two decades, technological advances such as directed energy weapons (DEW) require a response to develop capabilities which can protect Australia’s armed forces. DST, in partnership with Noetic Group and the University of New South Wales (UNSW), will host an EDTAS to explore potential advances in DE technologies up to 2040; conducting immersive activities to understand future possibilities. EDTAS will explore DE technologies over two separate symposia. The first symposium is an unclassified event, hosting experts from academia, industry and Defence. The second symposium is a classified event held for Defence and select attendees only. The purpose of each symposium is to draw on key insights to support a DST ‘Big Picture Analysis Report’ provides a pathway for priority research areas into the future. AIM This Insights Paper will inform EDTAS by providing a common reference point and understanding of DE technologies. It: + covers key and emerging trends + explores challenges and opportunities (including those specific to Australia), and + supports EDTAS participants’ involvement in exploring the future. SCOPE AND FOCUS This Insights Paper is neither an exhaustive nor definitive research paper. Rather, this paper explores the history of DE technologies, current and future technology concepts (weaving case studies throughout), drivers and trends and is intended to inform and focus the symposium discussions. Key insights have been derived through a series of interviews with subject matter experts (SME) as identified by DST, leveraging their experience, expertise and knowledge. Interviews were documented, individually reviewed and subsequently validated by the SMEs. In addition to this, interviews were complemented by extensive desktop research and analysis. For the purposes of this paper, Directed Energy (DE) has been defined as follows: “Directed Energy systems are electrically powered, which include high energy laser (HEL) and high-power microwave (HPM)/high-power radio frequency (HPRF) sources that are able to direct electromagnetic energy at the speed of light to damage a target.” This paper will explore both HEL and HPRF technology (including component technology) drivers and the associated enabling technologies that support DE applications, including offensive or defensive capabilities in a DE technology context. The idea of ‘radiotelegraphy’ pre-dates the invention of radio, with scientists exploring and researching such concepts since the 1830s. While there are numerous scientists to whom we can attribute the discovery and invention of systems that could detect radio frequencies; James Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Rudolf Hertz are credited as pioneers in understanding electromagnetism. The electromagnetic spectrum includes frequencies ranging from high-frequency gamma rays to low frequency radio waves. Different forms of electromagnetic (EM) energy are categorised by their wavelengths and frequencies. In this paper (as is standard practice), we refer to frequency when discussing HPRF and HPM, and wavelength when discussing HEL. For the purposes of this Insights Paper, Directed Energy systems are those employing high energy laser (HEL) and high-powered radio frequency (HPRF) sources, which can direct electromagnetic energy onto a target causing thermal (HEL) or electrical overload (HPRF) damage. Laser power is measured in watts, with low power lasers typically in milliwatts, and high-power lasers in tens of watts (DE systems are in the order of tens to hundreds of kilowatts). The ability of lasers to damage or affect various materials and targets is not due solely to power, but rather power divided by the area of laser spot called ‘irradiance’ (or sometimes power density, measured in watts/m²). The same power focussed in a small spot will have a greater effect than when the laser beam is spread over a large area. Therefore, the angle formed by individual light rays in the laser beam (beam divergence) and also the distance to the target, is crucial. More distant targets are more challenging to destroy as the beam spreads. Beam divergence is determined by laser design, construction, wavelength and apertures the beam is traveling through. When referring to the impact of lasers, there is a need to distinguish lasers that produce light continuously (also known as continuous wave or CW) and ‘pulsed lasers,’ that emit light intermittently, typically in regularly spaced pulses. The latter would typically have (broadly) similar average power to CW lasers, but extremely high peak powers. As a result of this high peak power, the impact of such pulsed lasers tends to be significantly higher than that of CW lasers. Metric Prefixes: - tera (T): 10¹² - giga (G): 10⁹ - mega (M): 10⁶ - kilo (k): 10³ - milli (m): 10⁻³ - micro (μ): 10⁻⁶ - nano (n): 10⁻⁹ - pico (p): 10⁻¹² The United States Department of Defence (DOD) defines HELs as lasers with a continuous output power greater than 20 kW or a pulsed energy in excess of 1 kJ. Laser wavelengths typically range from 400 nanometres (nm) (visible range) to 2 micron (infrared range), but longer wavelengths (e.g. ~300 micron) are also possible. Fundamentals of Laser Types: - Chemical (Gas) lasers use a gas or a mixture of gases within a tube. The best-known gas laser uses a mixture of helium and neon (HeNe), with a primary output of red light at 632.8 nanometres (nm). Helium-neon lasers can also be made to emit yellow, orange, green, or infrared light; typical powers are in the milliwatt range. Carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers are used in industry for cutting, emit light at around 10 micron wavelength and their power can reach tens of watts. - Dye lasers use a laser medium that is usually a complex organic dye in liquid solution or suspension. The appropriate choice of the dye (and its concentration) allows the production of laser light over a broad range of wavelengths in or near the visible spectrum. Dye lasers commonly employ optical pumping, although some types have used chemical reaction pumping. The most commonly used dye is Rhodamine 6G, which provides tunability over 200 nm bandwidth in the red portion (620 nm) of the spectrum. - Crystal/Glass/Solid-state lasers involve light from an external source that excites a solid-state material containing atoms known as dopants, which have been added to a host material at low concentrations. Important examples include glasses and crystals doped with the rare-earth element neodymium, and glasses doped with erbium or ytterbium, which can be drawn into fibres for use as fibre-optic lasers or amplifiers. - Semiconductor lasers (sometimes referred to as diode lasers) emit visible or infrared light when an electric current passes through them. The emission occurs at the interface between two regions doped with different materials (p-n junction). The wavelength depends on the semiconductor compound. The most common diode laser is the gallium arsenide diode laser with a central emission of around 840 nm. HPM and HPRF are grouped under the same ‘umbrella’ and are used interchangeably. The EM frequency spectrum for this area ranges from low megahertz (MHz) to high gigahertz (GHz) frequencies (1 x 10⁶ Hz to 1 x 10¹¹ Hz). Invisible to the human eye, these frequencies range from wavelengths of 0.1 centimetres (GHz frequencies) to three metres (MHz frequencies) in length. HPRF Bands: - Narrow-band generates coherent RF radiation by extracting energy from intense relativistic electron beams (IREBs) via a physical coupling mechanism. Typically, GHz frequency range. - Ultra-wide bands generate high-peak power EM pulses by directly exciting an antenna system using high-voltage pulses and a fast switching electrical current. Typically, most of the RF energy is radiated as unipolar (single) or bipolar (dual) type pulses. Although it is possible to generate damped sinusoidal waveforms of several wave cycles. Which Door? Which Effect? There are numerous pathways and entry points through which HPRF emissions can penetrate electronic systems. These entry points are known as the ‘front’ and ‘back’ door. - Front Door: EM signals that enter and propagate through the primary sensing circuitry of the target and the paths designed to carry signals into a system. Pathways can be antennae, domes or other sensor ‘windows’. This could include the propagation of a signal into a radar via its receiver circuitry. - Back Door: EM signals enter and propagate through circuitry and paths that were not intended for signal entry. Pathways can be cracks, seams or seals. Electrical components are extremely sensitive to HPRF emissions, which cause a range of effects including temporary to permanent damage – known as ‘upset’, ‘lock-up’ or ‘latch-up’. - Upset: Temporary alteration of the electrical state of one or more components, circuits or electrical pathways. When emissions have ceased, the items return to normal with no lasting effects generally seen. - Lock-up: The electrical state of components, circuits or pathways are temporarily altered. However, the items remain altered even after emissions have ceased. To regain functionality, the system must be reset manually. - Latch-up: A severe form of lock-up in which some of the internal components may be degraded by emissions. Even after cycling power through the system, the system may not return to normal function and further maintenance may be required. In some cases, normal function cannot be resumed. Controversial Beginnings: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser) In the early twentieth century, numerous physicists had been working toward emitting electromagnetic waves with ever shorter wavelengths. After radio waves (metres) and radar waves (centimetres, then millimetres), the next logical step was far-infrared waves. There are three incredibly influential Physicists who could be considered the inventors of the first lasers - Charles Townes, Arthur Schawlow and Gordon Gould. In 1957, Townes realised it would be easier to amplify radiation with very short wave than with far-infrared waves – moving away from the far-infrared region to the well-known techniques for amplifying light. Working with Schawlow, the two men determined that atoms could be stimulated more effectively when placed in an optical cavity with mirrors at each end. The light rays in such a cavity move back and forth inside increasing the chances for stimulating atoms to radiate. One of the mirrors is only partly silvered so some of the rays are able to leak out – the Fabry-Pérot etalon arrangement. Gould who was working on his thesis at the time, called it ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation’ or LASER for short. Townes and Schawlow, and Gould submitted patents nine months apart, with Townes and Schawlow receiving their patent grant prior to Gould. However, Gould had discussed his theories with Townes in 1957, two years prior to when both patents were filed – as a result Gould sued. Patent battles raged on for over thirty years, with Gould receiving settlements in 1987. Did you know: the optical techniques and theoretical knowledge to build a laser existed in the 1930s. But the principle of how to build a laser was not realised until the 1950s. What untapped potential exists in the DE space today? DE technologies, Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs) and related concepts have been part of military warfare for thousands of years. Roman author, Lucian, credited Greek mathematician and scientist Archimedes with inventing the first DEW - using mirrors to focus sunlight on invading ships and setting them on fire during the siege of Syracuse in 214-212 BCE – referred to as ‘Archimedes Mirrors’. Modern applications of DE technologies have seen numerous advancements in the DEW space, including public announcements of research programs designed to employ DE technologies as offensive and defensive capabilities – primarily to support governments in countering complex threats, such as ballistic missiles. During testing for the first detonation of a nuclear device (the Trinity Nuclear Test), electronics and sensitive equipment were shielded in anticipation of effects causes by an electromagnetic pulse (EMP). Between 1951 and 1953, the British conducted a series of nuclear tests in Australia. At this time, there were numerous observations of electronic instrumentation failures, which the British called ‘radioflash’. Nuclear EMPs are caused as a result of the explosion; a variant of this is the High-altitude EMP (HEMP), where an electromagnetic energy field is produced in the atmosphere by the power and radiation of a nuclear explosion. However, there are also EMPs which are produced by non-nuclear sources, such as HPMs. During the 1970s, the US commenced research into DE technologies. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) supported many technological and early system concepts for tactical HELs. This support funded the development of the Baseline Demonstration Laser (BDL) and the US Navy (USN) Chemical Laser (NACL). Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) – the ‘Star Wars’ program On 23 March 1983, in a televised address, US President Ronald Reagan announced his intention to commence research into a national defence system that was intended to make nuclear weapons obsolete. The research took several forms and was collectively known as the Strategic Defense Initiative, or SDI. At the core of the SDI was a program to develop a space-based missile defence capability that could protect the United States of America from large-scale nuclear attacks. The proposal involved numerous DE technology advancements, including space-based lasers, that could identify and destroy incoming ballistic missiles (at launch, in flight and at approach). The research program highlighted futuristic capabilities that had only been seen in the famous science fiction movie, Star Wars and was nicknamed the ‘Star Wars’ program. While working on the BDL and NACL systems, DARPA funded the ‘Special Laser Technology Development Program’. This program of work formed the basis for several developmental laser systems, including the Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser (MIRACL) – a massive megawatt device that relied on rocket-engine-like combustion, first lased in 1980; and the Chemical Oxygen-Iodine Laser (COIL). The latter forming the basis of the US Air Force’s (USAF) Airborne Laser (ABL). Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser: Chemical Oxygen-Iodine Laser (COIL) In 1999, assembly began on a militarised Boeing 747-400 Freighter to be used as a platform for the USAF’s ABL program. In October 2006, the system was rolled-out and designated YAL-1. The ABL was designed to provide a speed-of-light capability to destroy ballistic missiles in their boost flight phase (to mitigate atmospheric limitations suffered by terrestrial lasers). The YAL-1 inaugural flight occurred in 2007. In February 2010, the flying test bed destroyed a ballistic missile off the coast of Southern California. The program ceased in 2011. While significant research was ongoing in HELs during the 1980s, the USAF was concurrently researching higher frequencies of the high-power microwave frequency spectrum. This research followed significant investment by the US government on EMP and DE technologies as part of the SDI. In 2007, the US military demonstrated a Raytheon-developed HPM-based, wide-area counter-personnel Active Denial System (ADS). Three years later in 2010, the ADS was deployed to Afghanistan, however, there were complexities regarding the use of the technology in the battlespace and its operational efficacy in complex environments (including the effects of climate and other considerations). The ADS was subsequently returned and was not used during operational activities. The ADS is capable of firing a high-powered RF beam of 95 GHz, designed to induce physical pain to individuals through heat and skin irritation. The ADS could also be used as crowd suppression and control. The ADS is currently deployed on US military Hummer and Stryker vehicles, which also carry conventional weapons and other non-lethal weapons (such as the ‘sonic cannon’ Long Range Audible Device) – highlighting its complementary use to other technologies. The USAF Special Operations Command decided to pursue ADS II in 2011, a program where the technology would be smaller and more reliable (overcoming some of the challenges identified with the previous ADS). The research was focussed on mounting the ADS II on current airborne platforms, such as the AC-130J Gunship. The Los Angeles County Jail deployed an ‘Assault Intervention Device’ (AID), also known as the ‘Silent Defender’, in 2010. The AID was designed to lessen assaults occurring within the facility, either between inmates or directed towards guards. The AID, developed by Raytheon, is controlled by a joystick and emits a beam, equivalent to the size of a Compact Disc (CD), over approximately 30 metres. In 2011, the USN and Northrop Grumman successfully demonstrated a high-energy, solid-state laser defence at sea, by completing a counter-material test of the Maritime Laser Demonstrator (MLD) against small boats. The MLD successfully demonstrated the first naval laser system, installed on a decommissioned Spruance-class destroyer; the first naval system to be integrated with a ship’s radar and navigation system, and the first electric laser weapon to be fired at sea from a moving platform. The following year, Northrop Grumman announced their next generation ‘Firestrike’ family of high-energy solid-state lasers. The first product of the ‘Firestrike’ family was ‘Gamma’, which could fire short bursts at 13.3 kW over 1.5 hours. Gamma uses a “slab” architecture (similar to previous Northrop Grumman high-power, solid-state lasers, such as the Joint High-Power Solid-State Laser (JHPSSL) and the MLD). Northrop Grumman testing of Gamma demonstrated that the laser could burn through the Unmanned Autonomous Vehicle (UAV) skin and critical components of a target drone used to simulate anti-ship cruise missile threats to USN ships. In 2012, US Air Force Research Lab (AFRL) conducted a weapon flight test in Utah. The test was part of AFRL’s counter-electronics high-powered microwave advanced missile project (CHAMP). CHAMP renders electronic targets useless, by using a non-kinetic alternative to traditional explosive weapons, using the radiofrequency energy to defeat a target. During the test, the CHAMP missile navigated a pre-programmed flight plan and emitted bursts of high-powered energy, effectively knocking out the target’s data and electronic sub-systems. CHAMP also allows for selective high-frequency radio wave strikes against numerous targets during a single mission. Concurrently, Lockheed Martin developed a 10-kW fibre laser prototype in 2012. The Area Defence Anti-Munitions (ADAM) system, successfully destroyed an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) target. The ADAM can destroy two small boats at approximately two kilometres. The following year, Lockheed Martin developed a 30 kW Accelerated Laser Demonstration Initiative (ALADIN), a spectral beam combining fibre laser demonstrator. ALADIN is a multiple fibre laser modular capability that forms a single, powerful, high-quality beam, aiming to provide efficiency and lethality in a design that is scalable to higher power levels. In 2014, DARPA, within the research program ‘Excalibur’, developed coherent optical phased array technology to enable scalable laser weapons, which were aimed to be 10 times lighter and more compact than existing high-power chemical laser systems. The optical phased array architecture provides electro-optical systems with the same flexibility and performance enhancements that microwave phased arrays provide for RF systems. A multifunction Excalibur array may also perform laser radar, target designation, laser communications, and airborne-platform self-protection tasks. 45 Down: Raytheon’s HEL and HPRF capabilities excel in combating UAVs Raytheon and the AFRL have demonstrated a high-power microwave system which engaged multiple UAV swarms, downing 33 drones, two and three at a time. The DE system emits an adjustable width energy beam that can render UAVs unable to fly. Raytheon’s HEL system identified, tracked, engaged and downed 12 airborne, manoeuvring small (Class I) and medium (Class II) UAVs, and destroyed six stationary mortar projectiles. The use of DE technologies has gained significant traction since 2016, with research programs substantially increasing in effort. The current use and application of DE and DEW technologies is primarily explored within a Defence context and numerous countries are now demonstrating their sovereign capabilities in this field. While the US is currently the world leader in demonstrations of DE technologies, there have been significant advancements globally (with support from Defence Primes involved in collaborative and joint initiatives). Various countries are now actively developing and deploying DEWs into the battlespace. Increased interest, research and development of DEWs is in response to the evolving global threat environment and 21st Century warfighting demands. Points of Difference: Directed Energy Weapons vs Electronic Warfare A common assumption is that DEWs are like Electronic Warfare (EW) systems. The relationship between a DEW, specifically HPRF, and an EW system is that both use the frequency spectrum to work against electronics. While there is a foundational similarity between systems, EW systems are limited to jamming and generally only affect other systems when the EW system is operating. When an EW system ceases operation, the system being affected returns to normal. EW systems require knowledge of the system being targeted, as EW systems generally target the other system’s frequency or modulation. Further, the system needs to be operational for it to be affected (i.e. if the system is turned off or the frequency or modulation is not known, it will have no effect). DEWs in contrast are designed to overwhelm the other system’s ability to reject, disperse or withstand energy. There are four major differences between an EW system and a DEW. DEWs: 1. Do not rely on exact knowledge of other electronic systems 2. Can leave persisting and lasting effects 3. Affect electrical systems even when they are turned off, and 4. The entire affected electrical system needs to be hardened to counter effects, not just individual components or circuits. Increases in hybrid warfare and contested battlespace scenarios has meant research programs are looking to DEWs to address a range of threats – albeit as complementary measures to conventional weapons systems. One of the most notable threats being the need to counter the increase in use and sophistication of UAVs and Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs). Countries are now increasing efforts in DE technology research across all physical warfighting domains - land, air, sea and space. The following provides a snapshot of recent global developments in the Defence domain: + The US Army, working with the High Energy Laser Joint Technology Office, initiated the Robust Electric Laser Initiative (RELI) effort in 2010, with the US Army integrating a 50 kW RELI on their HEL Mobile Tactical Truck in 2018. + In 2017, Lockheed Martin developed a prototype Advanced Test High Energy Asset (ATHENA) Laser Weapon System (LWS). In tests conducted at White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, US, ATHENA destroyed five UAVs. + In January 2017, Huang Wenhua (Deputy Director of China’s Northwest Institute of Nuclear Technology) received a first prize ‘National Science and Technology’ progress award, for research on DE, specifically a HPM weapon. According to Huang, the technology was initially tested in 2010 in what was referred to as the ‘Huahai’ exercise. The capabilities of the HPM weapon remain unknown. + The United Kingdom (UK) Ministry of Defence (MOD) publicly announced in 2017, a consortium – ‘Dragonfire’ – comprising a mix of major defence firms including MBDA and BAE, in addition to science and engineering company QinetiQ to produce a LWS. The capability was intended to be deployed on Royal Navy (RN) ships. + During a State address in 2018, Russia announced the development of HEL systems for Russian Armed Forces. The ‘Peresvet’ combat laser entered experimental combat service in late 2018, following the country’s ongoing military modernisation program. There have been significant announcements and demonstrations of DEWs globally in 2019, with countries such as the US, United Kingdom, France, Germany, China and Turkey demonstrating their capabilities. The increase of publicly available information suggests numerous countries have intensified efforts into DEWs, with numerous demonstrators, in addition to integration on platforms, gaining media and public attention. COUNTERING THE SWARM: FRENCH ARMY BASTILLE DAY 2019 UNVEILING While the following technologies highlight electronic warfare capabilities, what possibilities exist from a DE perspective? In July 2019, the French Army unveiled two new counter-UAV (cUAV) tactical weapons at Bastille Day celebrations. The two technologies are being used to disrupt UAV operating near military or law enforcement personnel and assets. DroneGun Tactical from DroneShield – Australian technology on the world stage: DroneGun Tactical is manufactured by Australian Company DroneShield. It is designed to mitigate, control and manage UAVs. The DroneGun is 143 cm long and 20 cm wide, weighing approximately 7.3 kilograms (kg). DroneShield state the DroneGun has a 1 to 2km range and an operating time of approximately two hours, using two rechargeable Lithium-Ion batteries. NEROD F5 Drone Gun from MC2 Technologies: The NEROD F5 is developed and manufactured by French company MC2 Technologies. MC2 states the NEROD F5 is a microwave jammer capable of disrupting and neutralising all communication protocols used by UAVs. This system uses directional antennas inside the rifle to disrupt UAVs. The user must aim for the drone to neutralise it. The NEROD F5 has a maximum range of 2.5 km, a total weight of approximately 7kg and 2 hours of operation. + Countries such as Germany are also advancing developments in the DE space. Rheinmetall and MBDA Deutschland agreed to collaborate in order to construct, integrate and test a laser demonstrator on a German Navy K130 Braunschweig class (also known as Korvette 130) ship. + At the US Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessment (CSBA) Directed Energy Summit in March 2019, USN Director of Surface Warfare, announced plans to integrate a 60 kW HEL and Integrated Optical-dazzler with Surveillance weapon system (HELIOS) aboard a West Coast Arleigh Burke-class Flight IIA destroyer. The HELIOS will serve as an early test case to integrate a LWS into the ‘Aegis’ combat system of the USN’s surface fleet. Additionally, the laser system intends to provide a new capability as a sensor, to give more precise targeting data than a ship’s current combat system. The USN intends to have HELIOS integrated by 2021. + Media reporting by Chinese-state owned network CCTV has highlighted China’s advancements in HEL technologies, shown in a ground-based, vehicle-mounted application. The report suggests China’s HEL system beared resemblances to the USN LWS, showing China’s rapid progress in developing similar technologies. While a large focus in recent time has been on the terrestrial application of DEWs, the US Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) released the ‘Challenges to Security in Space’ assessment, highlighting that China and Russia are actively developing DEWs in the space domain in addition to other space-based capabilities. DIA assessed that China is likely pursuing laser weapons to disrupt, degrade, or damage satellites and their sensors and possibly already has a limited capability to employ laser systems against satellite sensors. China will likely field a ground-based laser weapon that can counter low-orbit space-based sensors by 2020, and by the mid-to-late 2020s, may field higher power systems that extend the threat to the structures of non-optical satellites. Further the DIA report outlined that Russia is likely pursuing laser weapons to disrupt, degrade, or damage satellites and their sensors. Prior to July 2018, Russia began delivering a laser weapon system to the Aerospace Forces that likely is intended for an anti-satellite (ASAT) mission. In public statements, President Vladimir Putin called it a “new type of strategic weapon,” and the Russian Defense Ministry asserted that it is capable of “fighting satellites in orbit.” Russia is also developing an airborne ASAT laser weapon system to use against space-based missile defence sensors. Space-based capabilities overview categories include: High-power Microwaves, Radiofrequency Jammers, Lasers, Chemical Sprayers, Kinetic Kill Vehicles, and Robotic Mechanisms. Next Level: Turkish Military shoots down UAV in Syria In the early 2010s, Turkish company Savtag demonstrated a HEL system which incremented from 1.25 kW up to 50 kW. The systems were created in conjunction with Tubitak, a state research institute. The systems were shown as technology demonstrators, highlighting that the Turkish government were planning to use these developments as weapons. In 2015, the Turkish government spent USD 450 million on the program, an amount comparable to other global leaders in the HEL space. In the same year, Aselsan holdings, the largest Turkish military-industrial corporation, took the Turkish laser weapons program “under the wing”. On July 7, 2018, the company issued a press release stating that it had successfully tested a combat laser capable of hitting small-sized UAVs from 500 metres, as well as destroying explosive devices from 200 metres. The compact laser gun was installed on the Turkish ‘Otokar Cobra’ armoured vehicle and was equipped with a guidance system allowing the continuous hold of the laser marker on a target. In 2019, media reports suggest a new Turkish installation, shot down a United Arab Emirates owned, Chinese made UAV. The LWS is mounted on the chassis of an off-road armoured car. Like the earlier Aselsan model, it is equipped with a Turkish-made optoelectronic guidance system, allowing accurate inspection of the target for firing – enabling the identification of vulnerable points to hold the laser marker on until the target is destroyed. Similar to the previous demonstrator, a continuous radiation mode is provided (without long interruptions to the “pumping” of the laser) generating 50 kW output power. This is currently the most powerful combat laser in the Turkish ground combat vehicle arsenal. Particular efforts to focus on multi-domain use and advancements of DE technologies may be declining, with a push to re-focus efforts on the terrestrial application of DE and DEW capabilities and the consideration of where DE technologies could support future challenges and changes to the battle landscape. Pentagon Shifts DE Efforts: Terrestrial Focus In a recent announcement, the US. DOD is prioritising its DEW research on technologies ready to field now, instead of focussing on the creation of more complex space-based technology. In particular, the Pentagon is exploring the usefulness of DE, specifically on how to increase the power of weapons. This shift highlights the Pentagon’s preference to advance technologies ready to deploy in terrestrial domains in the near-term and is shelving plans to develop systems that are years away from initial testing in the space domain. + In July 2019, the UK MOD announced plans to focus on HEL beam combination technologies, dedicating GBP 130 million to the research program. The intent is to trial and deploy combined HEL technologies into UK RN ships, in addition to British Army armoured vehicles and UK ‘Wildcat’ helicopters. This activity is different to the ‘Dragonfire’ program, as it combines multiple laser beams to produce a weapon more powerful than its predecessors and resistant to the most challenging environmental conditions – one of the ongoing challenges for HEL weapons systems, indicating the need to focus on future requirements. Testing is expected to commence in 2023. These examples highlight a global push to enhance DEWs. Advancements in evolution signify a strategic, future-focussed push by governments to develop DE technologies to solve a range of complex challenges into the future. 1830: ‘Radiotelegraphy’ 1887: Heinrich Hertz ‘Wireless Telegraphy’ 1951-1953: British Nuclear Testing ‘radioflash’ - Documented impact of electromagnetic pulse to electronic systems 1957-1959: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER) patent application 1970: DARPA commenced research and development: Technological and early system concepts for tactical HELs 1980: Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser (MIRACL) - A massive megawatt device that relied on rocket-engine-like combustion, first lased; Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser (COIL) - Basis of US Air Force’s (USAF) Airborne Laser (ABL) 1983: USA Strategic Defense Initiative ‘Star Wars Program’ - Space-based missile defence capability concept 2007: HPM Active Denial System - HPM-based, wide-area counter-personnel; High-powered RF beam of 95 GHz, designed to induce physical pain to individuals 2011: Maritime Laser Demonstrator (MLD) against small boats - HE solid-state laser (SSL) demonstrator 2012: ‘Firestrike’ SSL - Capable of firing short bursts at 13.3 kW over 1.5 hours, demonstration of burning through UAV skin and critical components; Area Defence Anti-munitions (ADAM) system - 10 kW fibre laser prototype; US AFRL Counter-electronics high-power microwave advanced missile (CHAMP) project - Emitted bursts of high-powered energy knocking out target sub-systems 2013: 30 kW Accelerated Laser Demonstration Initiative (ALADIN) - Spectral beam combining fibre laser demonstrator 2014: DARPA ‘Excalibur’ – Coherent optical phased array technology aimed to be 10 times lighter and more compact 2017: Advanced Test High Energy Asset (ATHENA) Laser Weapon System - Destroyed five UAVs in tests; ‘Dragonfire’ industry consortium UK capability - LWS intended for ships 2019: HEL and Integrated Optical-dazzler with Surveillance weapon system (HELIOS) - 60 kW maritime Laser Weapon System Australia, through DST, has a DE program of effort. However, compared to other partners, Australia’s capability is still evolving. Amidst ongoing efforts globally, there is a push for Australia to develop a niche capability to support DE efforts. This includes a focus on Size, Weight and Power (SWaP) developments, particularly miniaturisation of DE-related technologies. Australia’s academic and research cohort is robust, with multiple Australian-based universities involved in research programs that either directly, or indirectly, support DE development efforts. These efforts are complemented by a leading-edge Australian Defence Industry, with multiple Australia-based companies involved in technology within Australia and globally. Given Australia’s potential in the DE space, there are some key (and critical) areas Australia could focus effort towards, or harness, to further support DE programs in collaboration with DST and others. One critical area, is the development of a sovereign capability, specifically the development of laser diodes, semiconductors and antennae. This is likely to require significant resourcing, investment and facilities in addition to cross-collaboration between government, academia and industry. Additional areas of focus could include the development of bespoke manufacturing and system design capabilities, access to appropriate testing environments, the development of training pathways to increase understanding of DE and underlying technologies, and importantly, the ability for academia to work with the appropriate tools that enable and support research activities. Expert Quote: “Access to directed energy technologies is fast becoming a strategic requirement for all modern militaries – Australia must focus on systems development and sovereign capability or be left behind.” Bragging Rights: Spotlight on Australia’s contributions to photonics Australian-British father-son team, Sir William Henry Bragg and Sir William Lawrence Bragg, developed the Bragg formulation of X-ray diffraction. Their research paved the way for a deeper understanding of how electromagnetic waves are scattered from crystalline materials. ‘Bragg reflectors’ rely on the Braggs’ work, and can be used in optical filters (such as optical bandpass filters). Fibre Bragg gratings have application in telecommunications, where they are used as notch filters, multiplexers and demultiplexers (to filter out, combine or separate beam frequencies). They are highly versatile devices and are used extensively in photonics research and environmental sensing. In recognition of their efforts, the Braggs won the Nobel Prize in Physics 1915 for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays. Sir William Lawrence Bragg remains the youngest ever Science Laureate at 25. DEWs are systems with complex, integrated sub-systems. For example, a HEL system for defence applications consists of several sub-systems: + Laser generates the high-energy beam, either pulsed or continuous wave, + Beam Director directs and delivers the high-energy beam to the target + Power Supply generates the power required for the system + Integrating Structure incorporates the key enabling infrastructure that integrates with platforms + Command and Control sub-system includes a sensor system for initial target acquisition and contains the command and control system to integrate the laser into a broader operational platform. From an HPRF perspective, the following typically applies: + Power Supply generates the power required for the system + Pulse Power & RF Source generates, amplifies and filters the RF signal + Antennae transmits the high-power electromagnetic waves (related additional components may be included to direct the waves) + Integrating Structure incorporates the key enabling infrastructure that integrates with platforms. While DEWs offer advantages compared to conventional weapons systems, there are also disadvantages. DE and conventional weapons are complementary and together are likely to provide the optimal basis for future military roles - with DEWs unlikely to completely replace or displace alternate (or conventional) weapons. Advantages: + Low-cost per engagement/shot + Ability to limit, control and target particular localised areas (i.e. discriminate targeting) unlike nuclear, chemical or biological capabilities that result in wide-area effects + Near simultaneous engagement across multiple threats/rapid firing (i.e. countering unmanned aerial systems) + Ability to be modular and scalable by design + Speed of targeting and travel as a defensive strategy (can be redirected and targeted – e.g. intercepting missiles) + Not easily tracked – weapons have the potential to emit non-visible light or inaudible sound. Disadvantages: - Weight of system and supporting components - Vulnerability to atmospheric conditions and distortions (i.e. rain, fog and temperature differential) - Complex systems (which include cooling, beam control, targeting, power supply etc.) - HPRF has a risk of electronic fratricide or collateral damage - High capability and sustainment cost - Risk of human injury or physical effects on the battlespace (e.g. blinding). For the purposes of this Insights Paper, DE technology has been sub-divided into the following areas and includes both HEL and HPRF-related technologies: + Enabling + Power Source + Laser/RF Output (including Amplification) + Effects and Mitigation/Countering + Operators and the Human Element Key technology opportunity and consideration categories: - Size, Weight and Power (SWaP) - Counter-measures - Power Sources or Electrification - Power Electronics - Autonomy, Artificial Intelligence - Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance - Materials - Antennae - Survivability - Biological or Physiological Effects - Resilience - Sovereign Capability - Critical Infrastructure - Laser Source or Beam Combination Today: Integrating DE and DEW technologies is an ongoing challenge. Different domains provide different opportunities, advantages and requirements. For example, power availability and space on a ship in the maritime domain, is considerably different to the needs of the aerospace domain. A large portion of focus is on the SWaP of systems, to enable successful integration with existing capabilities in addition to rapid deployment. While the electrical capacity of platforms could increase, this may impact integration into an entire ecosystem. Coherent beam combination technology, specific to HELs, involves ‘phasing-up’ to deliver the same power with less cooling requirements. It also allows for ‘graceful degradation’; allowing replacement of certain components without having to replace an entire capability (LOCSET developed by AFRL). Photonics uses metamaterials and nanomaterials with sub-wavelength features that are efficient absorbers of laser wavelengths, offering the ability to stop lasers in a few nm while remaining portable. Tomorrow: Bringing together all ancillary systems to make a true capability will be the focus in the future. Advancements in integration are already occurring (e.g., USN HELIOS integration with Aegis combat system). Rapid miniaturisation will support further integration of DE and DEW technologies into autonomous systems in aviation, reducing engineering and maintenance overheads. Today: Significant advancements in nanostructured materials, particularly nanoelectronics. For DE technologies, power sources are in-situ, and nano storage advancements will support next steps. Power electronics current challenges relate to improving voltage and current densities in compact devices. Current focus is on integrating supercapacitors, complementary/parallel to microbatteries. Solid-state microbatteries face ongoing energy density challenges. Large power outputs require significant logistic infrastructure, and current energy storage processes rely on costly rare-earth materials. Tomorrow: Energy storage scaling with volume is key to miniaturisation of prime power systems. Nanoscale interface mechanisms and battery advancements like lithium-sulphur or sodium-sulphur provide opportunities, though resource constraints remain. Power electronics will shift towards high-frequency design philosophies for circuit boards, high power handling capability, and high density. Advancements in supercapacitors combined with pseudo capacitance (non-faradaic redox) and/or lithium-ion battery technology will bridge the gap between capacitors and batteries. Today: Maintaining advancements in semiconductor technology (silicon carbide, gallium nitride operating at 400°C) directly affects DE/DEW. Graphene shows promise for beam scanning and conformal antennae. Technical limitations in antennae include difficulty in high-gain scanning over broad areas, slow/cumbersome mechanical rotation, and aerodynamic/maintenance constraints. In HEL, combining low-power units to achieve a 100 kW system while managing SWaP and maintaining beam quality/termination remains a major challenge. Tomorrow: Advancements in 2D materials (graphene, metamaterials with tailored dielectric constants) will allow conformal, lightweight, and high-gain 'needle beam' antenna patterns, boosting efficiency and aerodynamic performance on aircraft and UAVs. Semiconductor evolution into gallium oxide and diamond will enhance high-power, high-frequency RF platforms. Diode Pumped Alkali Laser (DPAL) offers intrinsically high efficiency and superior power-to-mass ratios. Today: Asymmetric threats from low-cost UAVs targeting critical infrastructure (e.g., Gatwick Airport shutdown, Saudi Arabian oil refinery attacks in Sept 2019) require rapid detection, tracking, and targeting solutions. DEWs offer rapid defeat of swarms and evasive targets at close range. Hardening of electronic components against radiation (EMP, HPRF) using radiation-hardened architectures is crucial for terrestrial and space applications. Passive countermeasures include dielectric mirrors, ablative coatings, thermal transport delay, and obscurants (smoke/smog). Case Study: Starfish Prime (1962) A high-altitude nuclear test created an EMP disrupting microwave links in Hawaii and causing six satellites to fail due to radiation belts. Tomorrow: Countering hypersonic and high-speed precision weapons will demand ultra-fast DE defensive response times. Integration of quantum computing, AI, machine learning, and augmented reality will enhance targeting systems. Developments in shielding will protect electronics against hard/soft damage, preserve communications against EMI/EMC, and integrate geometric deflection features to deflect HEL threats. Today: Physiological effects of low-level and high-power RF/DE emissions on human health require thorough investigation. Studies suggest links to cancer, neurological, and inflammatory issues, with acute damage occurring within seconds at high power. Research is utilizing genome and RNA sequencing at single-cell levels and 3D bio-printing. Eye safety is paramount: scattered light from a 100 kW laser at 1 micron can cause permanent retinal damage and blindness, whereas wavelengths beyond 1.4 micron pose significantly less risk. Laser classification standards place HELs in Class 4 (exceeding 500 mW+). Tomorrow: Potential biological mutations in bacteria and human cells from RF/EM exposure need monitoring. Advancements in wavelength-specific PPE and heads-up displays (HUD) combined with VR/AR and autonomous control will allow remote operation, removing personnel from optical danger zones. Sovereign Capability: Australia relies heavily on international supply chains for semiconductors, semiconductor lasers, and laser diodes. Developing sovereign manufacturing and development capabilities is essential to avoid strategic vulnerability. Australia possesses unique expertise in optical fibre technologies that should be leveraged for HEL development. Broader Challenges for Defence & National Security: Adoption of DEWs necessitates updates to Rules of Engagement (ROE), doctrine, operational policies, and training programs across the ADF. Potential non-military security applications include critical infrastructure defence and law enforcement, requiring appropriate legislative and policy adaptations. Funding: Funding in Australia has historically been limited and reliant on international prime collaborations. The Next Generation Technology Fund (NGTF) offers opportunities to support sovereign research and dual-use technological spin-offs. Resources, Skills & Attributes: The cessation of nuclear testing following the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) led to a loss of specialized knowledge in electromagnetic modelling and simulation. Establishing educational and training pathways is vital to building a specialized DE workforce. Testing Facilities: Access to wide-open testing spaces in Australia (e.g., Queensland UAS facility) presents opportunities. Specialized facilities include UTS Global Big Data Technologies Centre's Electromagnetic Informatics Lab (EIL) with anechoic chambers up to 90 GHz, and international facilities like MBDA/ALPhANOV’s Vulnerability Test Facility (VTF) in France. Conventions, Treaties and Regulations: DEW development must adhere to international legal frameworks, notably the 1995 UN Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons (Protocol IV of the CCW), which prohibits lasers designed solely or partly to cause permanent blindness (visual acuity < 20/200 Snellen). Compliance with ARPANSA, ACMA, and ITAR regulations is also mandatory. Public Perception: Managing public perception requires clear communication of DE capabilities, learning from the SDI era to avoid misinformation. Emphasizing civilian spin-offs (cancer imaging/treatment, water purification, advanced manufacturing, and satellite radiation shielding) helps foster positive public engagement. - ABL: Airborne Laser - ACMA: Australian Communications and Media Authority - ADAM: Area Defence Anti-Munitions - ADS: Active Denial System - AEC: Atomic Energy Commission - AFRL: Air Force Research Laboratory (United States) - AI: Artificial Intelligence - AID: Assault Intervention Device - ALADIN: Accelerated Laser Demonstration Initiative - AR: Augmented Reality - ARPANSA: Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency - AS/NZS: Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand - ASAT: Anti-Satellite - ATHENA: Advanced Test High Energy Asset - BDL: Baseline Demonstration Laser - CHAMP: Counter-electronics High-powered microwave Advanced Missile Project - cIED: counter Improvised Explosive Device - COIL: Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser - CSBA: Center for Strategic Budgetary Assessment - CTBT: Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty - cUAV: counter Unmanned Aerial Vehicle - CW: Continuous Wave - DARPA: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency - DE: Directed Energy - DEW: Directed Energy Weapon - DIA: Defense Intelligence Agency - DOD: Department of Defense (US) - DPAL: Diode Pumped Alkali Laser - DST: Defence Science and Technology - EDTAS: Emerging Disruptive Technology Assessment Symposium - EIL: Electromagnetic Informatics Lab - EMC: Electromagnetic Congestion - EM: Electromagnetic - EMI: Electromagnetic Interference - EMP: Electromagnetic Pulse - EW: Electronic Warfare - GHz: Gigahertz - HEL: High Energy Laser - HELIOS: HEL Integrated Optical-dazzler with Surveillance weapon system - HEMP: High-altitude Electromagnetic Pulse - HeNe: Helium and Neon - HPM: High Power Microwave - HPRF: High Power Radio Frequency - HUD: Heads-up Display - Hz: Hertz - IED: Improvised Explosive Device - IREB: Intense Relativistic Electron Beams - ISO: International Organization for Standardization - ITAR: International Traffic in Arms Regulations - JHPSSL: Joint High-power Solid-State Laser - kJ: Kilojoule - kW: Kilowatt - LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation - LD: Laser Diode - LOCSET: Locking of Optical Coherence by Single-Detector Electronic Frequency Tagging - LWS: Laser Weapon System - MHz: Megahertz - MIRACL: Mid-infrared Advanced Chemical Laser - MLD: Maritime Laser Demonstrator - MOD: Ministry of Defence (UK) - NACL: Navy Chemical Laser - NASA: National Aeronautics Space Administration - NGTF: Next Generation Technology Fund - NM: Nanometre - RELI: Robust Electric Laser Initiative - RF: Radio Frequency - RNA: Ribonucleic Acid - RN: Royal Navy - ROE: Rules of Engagement - SDI: Strategic Defense Initiative - SME: Subject Matter Expert - SWaP: Size, Weight and Power - THz: Terahertz - UAV: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle - UK: United Kingdom - UNSW: University of New South Wales - UN: United Nations - USAF: United States Air Force - USN: United States Navy - US: United States - VR: Virtual Reality - VTF: Vulnerability Test Facility - WHO: World Health Organization List of Subject Matter Experts interviewed: - Aether Photonics: Jae Daniel (with Michael Holzer), Founder and CEO - Australian National University: Dr Lyle Roberts, Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Quantum Science - Coherent Nufern: Adrian Carter, Chief Technology Officer - DefendTex: Damien Cahill, Program Manager - Macquarie University: Professor Richard Mildren, Department of Physics and Astronomy, BioFocus Research Centre - Mirragin Unmanned Systems: Rob Sutton, Founder and CEO - Northrop Grumman Corporation and Northrop Grumman Australia: Josh Rothenberg, Matt McDonald & Andrew Neumann - Ocular Robotics: Mark Bishop, Founder and CEO - QinetiQ: Lindsay Pears & Ian Gregory - Silanna Group: Dr Petar Atanackovic, Chief Scientist - University of Melbourne: Jafar Shojaii, Postdoctoral Researcher - University of New South Wales: Professor John Fletcher, School of Engineering and Electrical Systems - University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy: Professor Scott Tyo, Professor and Head of School, School of Engineering and Information Technology - University of Technology Sydney: Francesca Iacopi, Head of Discipline, SEDE Communications and Electronics, School of Electrical and Data Engineering - University of Technology Sydney: Dr Peiyuan Qin, Senior Lecturer, School of Electrical and Data Engineering - Victoria University: Daniel Lai, Electronics Engineer - Victoria University: Professor Vasso Apostolopoulos, Interim Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Research