AVALANCHE Avalanche Fusion Nearly endless clean energy for mobility and distributed energy applications. Imagine the applications... CWFEST, October 2023 Who we are | 2 "What important truth do very few people agree with you on?" — Peter Thiel, Zero to One: Notes on Startups, or How to Build the Future Fusion Reactors do not need to be large >$1B machines Fusion power can be small, mobile, distributed and mass produced at scale like a Tesla battery pack How? Electrostatic fusion using very high voltages in a small compact form factor 10's of cm in diameter What is new here? Electrons co-rotating with ions in "ExB" fields is the key to unlocking small scale fusion. 1. Electrons mitigate "space charge effects" enabling a high plasma density 2. Co-rotating electrons are like a tail wind for ions allowing them to burn longer at high fusion energies Who we are | 3 Why we're here. Humanity won't reach Net Zero Greenhouse Emissions by 2050 without fusion power. Everything that is powered needs to decarbonized, from power grids to maritime transport, aviation and the military. Most fusion companies are tackling the major opportunity that is the grid-scale electricity. Avalanche intends to power everything else. Avalanche Energy – Proprietary and Confidential Who we are | 4 Fusion Reactor Size determines Capital, Headcount and Development Speed Built in years, iterate in months, civil engineering project Application: Grid - Most approaches are thermonuclear. - Reactor size varies from house to warehouse scale - Capital costs to commercial operations >$1B - Headcounts 100's to 1000's of people - Estimated first commercial operations >6 years Built in weeks, iterate in days, mass produce at factory scale Application: Mobility and Distributed Energy - Avalanche is developing world's smallest fusion microreactor. - Capital costs to commercial operations <$1B - Headcount <200 of people - Estimated first commercial operations <6 years Scale spectrum: 1GW -> 10's MW -> 10's kW (Grid to Space/Aviation/Marine/Micro) How it works | 5 Orbitrap: - Ion beam confined electrostatically in orbits around special shaped cathode rod and outer anode shell Magnetron: - Electrons confined in ExB field between cathode and anode - Long electron confinement times and low current between cathode and anode Orbitron: - Dense high energy plasmas - Bright neutron sources via D-D and D-T fusion - Potential for small net energy fusion devices - Electrostatic only fusion vs Electrostatic fusion densified with magnetically confined electrons vs High-Flux Neutron Generator (D-T) / Neutron Generator (D-D) How it works | 6 Sample of Fusion Energy Approaches: - Magnetic (Low n, high TE) / Intermediate or Hybrid (Medium n and TE) / Inertial (High n, low TE) - Continuous Operation vs Pulsed Operation - Avalanche Orbitron classified under Continuous Operation / No compression / Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) / DT fuel Avalanche Orbitron: 1) Electrons: magnetized & confined via ExB mirror like CMFX, WHAM/REALTA 2) Ions: electrostatic orbits around center cathode 3) Low magnetic fields (0.6 Tesla) and very compact diameter (10's cm) 4) Very high voltage cathode: 100's kV Created By: Derek Sutherland & Andy Freeberg, Zap Energy, Inc. Last Modified: September 2023 How it works | 7 Orbitron Fusion Rate Scaling Particle-in-Cell simulation (Vsim) explored ion density and energy for 6 cm radius Orbitron - 300 kV cathode, 30 keV beam, 0.4 Tesla achieved Density 5E19/m3, ECoM D-T 63 keV, Te 15 keV - Orbitrons confine non-thermal plasmas: Ions are unmagnetized and orbiting electrostatically, electrons ExB - Orbitrons can vary ion collisional energy (voltage, beam energy) independently from average electron energy (magnetic field) - Makes them very interesting devices for exploring fusion plasma parameter space - Plots shown: D-D Neutron Source (10^n n/s) and D-T Power (kW) vs Voltage (kV) and Magnetic Field Bz (T), highlighting the 'Interesting Parameter Space for Fusion' and WarpX PIC Simulation operating point. How it works | 8 Electrostatic & Non-Thermal Fusion Plasma (1/3) Electrostatic & Non-thermal (non-Maxwellian) fusion plasma is controversial in fusion sciences "For all possible types of fusion reactors if major particle species are significantly non-Maxwellian or at radically different mean energies recirculating power will substantially exceed fusion power." – Rider (MIT, 1995) "The very large recirculating power obtained by Rider (1995) is a consequence of the assumption of particle distribution functions that simplify calculations but have no physical basis" – Rostoker, Qerushi & Binderbauer (Tri-Alpha, 2003) "The Coulomb collision rate through 90 deg. for p-B11 is 37x faster than fusion [25x for D-T]. Colliding beam fusion is not feasible due to particle loss and energy dissipation rates orders of magnitude faster than fusion." – Lampe & Manheimer (NRL, 1998) How it works | 9 Electrostatic Non-Thermal Fusion Plasma (2/3) At a high level for D-T plasma the scientific critics can be summarized as two key points: A) Electrostatic approaches to fusion cannot achieve high ion densities due to space charge effects B) Electrostatic or Non-thermal (Non-Maxwellian, colliding beam) approaches to fusion cannot achieve net energy due to excessive Coulomb collision losses How it works | 10 Electrostatic Non-Thermal Fusion Plasma (3/3) Much of the previous controversy stems from the modelling assumptions in the reduced order models used to assess the various fusion concepts … the real fusion and confinement physics are complicated! We find the two high-level critics: Space Charge and Coulomb Collisions are valid BUT the Orbitron also has some unique aspects that address both issues Development flow: First-order models to understand the high-level Orbitron physics -> Particle-in-Cell simulations to incorporate the complex physics -> Experimental prototypes to anchor the first-order models and simulations How it works | 11 Space Charge Density • Electrostatic fusion critic A) Cannot achieve high ion densities due to space charge • In Orbitron electrons are introduced and confined via magnetron ExB electron scheme to overcome ion space charge density limits Fig 4. PIC Simulations showing ion and electron loading into the Orbitron, exceeding space charge limit and ultimately densified plasma - Ion & Electron Confinement Uncoupled - Confinement Coupled via Space Charge - Coupled Plasma Densification - Plasma Density (1/m3) vs Time (s) tracking Max Dplus Density and Max Electron Density beyond the Electron Space Charge Limit. Avalanche Energy – Proprietary and Confidential How it works | 12 Space Charge Density Particle Density at 0.00e+00s | iteration: 0 Heatmaps for Dplus and Electrons density distribution. Avalanche Energy – Proprietary and Confidential How it works | 13 Coulomb Collisions: First-Order Model Electrostatic fusion critic B) Non-thermal (Non-Maxwellian, colliding beam) approaches to fusion cannot achieve net energy due to excessive Coulomb collision losses Collision Frequencies from NRL Plasma Formulary: - Electron-ion: nu_s^(e|i) / (n_i Z^2 lambda_ei) ≈ 3.9 x 10^-6 epsilon^-3/2 - Ion-electron: nu_s^(i|e) / (n_e Z^2 lambda_ie) ≈ 1.7 x 10^-4 mu^1/2 epsilon^-3/2 - Ion-ion: nu_s^(i|i') / (n_i' Z^2 Z'^2 lambda_ii') ≈ 9.0 x 10^-8 (1/mu + 1/mu') mu^1/2 / epsilon^3/2 First-Order Model for Orbitron Qplasma: For ions orbiting in a potential well: - Losing total energy (potential + kinetic) result in orbits that spiral down towards the cathode - Gaining total energy will result in orbit that spirals up to the anode For electrons in an ExB: - Losing total energy due to collisions with slower ions always results in upscattering toward the anode Collision frequencies converted to currents (mA) and summed for net effect (upscattering vs downscattering): I_vu = nu_TD * N_D / C Power loss is determined by particle energy (keV) x net particle current (mA): P_u = V_i * I_vu Plasma Q (Fusion power / Loss Power): Q_plasma = P_fus / ((V_i - V_c) sum(I_vd) + V_i sum(I_vu) + P_brem) [Components: Downscatter to cathode, Upscatter to anode, Bremsstrahlung] Avalanche Energy – Proprietary and Confidential How it works | 14 Coulomb Collisions: First-Order Model - Orbitron Qplasma (Fusion Power/Plasma Losses) due to electron temperature (Te) and deuterium-tritium center-of-mass energy (Ecm) [Voltage = 300kV, Density 5E13 ions/cc] - Net loss current (mA) for deuterium (D), tritium (T) and electrons (e) (+ve is a loss to the anode and -ve is a loss to the cathode) as a function of Electron Temperature Te (keV). Avalanche Energy – Proprietary and Confidential How it works | 15 Coulomb Scattering Collisions: 2.5D PIC Simulation Using PIC Simulation with LBNL's WarpX code to anchor and validate conclusions from first-order model. WarpX includes state-of-art relativistic Coulomb collision models and fusion reactions. Some Caveats: - Time step is set by electrons at 5E-13 s - At a target Orbitron density of 5E19/m3 estimated complete thermalization time from Lampe & Manheimer for D-T plasma is 0.05 seconds - To make computationally tractable simulation is run at densities from 1E25/m3 - 5E23/m3 - Not possible to resolve plasma frequency or space charge at these densities; simulation is purely a Monte-Carlo Coulomb scattering test case - Results are density scaled back to Orbitron densities of 5E19/m3 Visuals: PIC Simulations initial ion and electron density distribution axial view; PIC Simulations thermalized ion and electron density distribution axial view. Avalanche Energy – Proprietary and Confidential How it works | 16 Coulomb Scattering Collisions Density scaled simulation time represents: 0.05 s – 0.8 s - Per Rider (1995), Lampe & Manheimer (1998) model should observe complete loss of particles or thermalize to collisionless solid body rotation by 0.05 s - Significant particle density and fusion rates >0.05 s - Starting to explore plasma parameter space for beam energy, Te and Qplasma via these PIC simulations How it works | 17 Seattle, WA Based Lab - ~15,000 sqft Features: - Prototype 1 "Neo" - High Voltage & Ion Gun - Prototype 2 "Marty" - Material Sciences "Janice" How it works | 18 Prototype 1: "Neo" 100kV, 0.07T Components shown: - High Voltage Feedthrough - Permanent Ring Magnet - Orbitron - Diagnostics - Ion Gun - Einzel Lens (Focus and Beam Steering) How it works | 19 Diagnostics Overview - He3 Neutron counter: Gives real time neutron flux; Operates by thermalizing 2.5 MeV neutrons and measuring ionization pulse from He3 thermal neutron capture - Scintillator w/ Pulse Shape Discrimination (PSD): Gives total source neutron flux with high accuracy filtering out gamma rays - Argon Spectroscopy: Fiber optics embedded in anode looking at plasma; Can measure number of Ar+ ions via measured brightness; Argon spectroscopy could be alternate method to confirm plasma densification with Ar+ ion and electron confinement in Orbitron - X-ray Spectroscopy: Measuring Bremsstrahlung X-rays to determine electron energy distribution (Te) and electron density (ne) via X-ray power emitted thru Be window - Neutron Camera: Scintillator w/ PSD collimated view to a "pixel" and locate neutron sources spatially; Allows discrimination of beam-target fusion in cathode from beam-beam fusion in space between cathode and anode How it works | 20 Neutron Energies with Pulse Shape Discrimination - Ion Source Off (background neutrons): neutrons n = 30 - Ion Source on and Orbitron Running: neutrons n = 11806 Plots showing discrimination ratio vs gamma energy (keV) and neutron energy (keV) separating gammas from neutrons. How it works | 21 Prototype 2: "Marty" 300kV Prototype 2 "Marty" – first electrostatic fusion device > 200kV Components: - High Voltage Feedthrough - Orbitron - Diagnostics - Ion Gun AVALANCHE The path | 22 Orbitron Experimental Program Current Status • Prototype 1 (Neo): Measured fusion neutrons at 100 kV, 0 T (no magnets): 1E4 n/s • Prototype 1 (Neo): Working on Improved ion loading + magnets 100 kV, 0.05 T: ≈1E6 n/s • Prototype 2 (Marty): Reached 200kV (no magnets) and Targeting 300 kV, 0.3 T during Series A: ≈1E11 n/s Milestones & Roadmap: - Neo (100 kV, ~0.05 T) - Marty (200-300 kV, 0.3 T) - Superconducting Magnets: Est. Jan 2024 - Tritium Capable Facility Q>1 Experimental Program 23-Oct-23 Avalanche Energy Who we are | 23 Meet the team Avalanche Energy is a 33-strong team including 13 PhD's with specializations in Computational & Plasma Physics, Mechanical & High Voltage Engineering on Staff. We have broad expertise from New Space, Academia, Government, Software and bring a rapid Test-Fail-Fix approach building a Micro Fusion Reactor. Alumni & Partner organizations: Blue Origin, Boeing, Google, NASA, Microsoft, U.S. Air Force, PPPL, SIEMENS. Avalanche Energy – Proprietary and Confidential Summary | 24 Summary At a high level for D-T plasma the scientific critics of electrostatic fusion can be summarized as two key points: A) Electrostatic approaches to fusion cannot achieve high ion densities due to space charge effects - We've shown via PIC simulation that electron confinement in ExB fields is key to resolving this - We are very close to demonstrating this experimentally on Neo B) Electrostatic or Non-thermal (Non-Maxwellian, colliding beam) approaches to fusion cannot achieve net energy due to excessive Coulomb collision losses - In rotating plasmas there may be a spectrum between pure beam-beam to pure Maxwellian that is interesting for generating fusion energy as indicated by collisional PIC simulations - Demonstrating this experimentally with Deuterium-Tritium fusion is ultimately how we intend to develop a Q>1 small scale fusion reactor The Orbitron | 25 Meet the Orbitron Small scale fusion for mobility applications Build in months, iterate in days: Small teams focus on specific problems and rapidly iterate via simulation & two prototypes in our Tukwila lab. Inertial Electrostatic Confinement: - High energy ion beams collide to create fusion plasma - Confine ions via electrostatic fields (inspired by Orbitraps) - Densify plasmas via electrons (inspired by Magnetrons) Tackling hard to decarbonize applications: From space craft, to unmanned submersible vehicles, aviation, maritime shipping and distributed energy. Avalanche Energy – Proprietary and Confidential Thank you. [email protected] AVALANCHE