Ranging from a tiny .22LR ammunition to the missiles with a large payload capacity, everything uses one or other type of combustion reaction to produce the kinetic energy and the desired impact on the target. But this is about to change as the scientists are tapping into the more advance domains of energy conversion. One such domain is the exploitation of electromagnetic energy to produce more advance weapon systems which have never been witnessed in the past. Directed Energy Weapons also come under this domain. Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs) are the weapon systems which are capable of using electromagnetic waves, atomic or subatomic particles to throw a directed beam of energy towards the target in order to cause fatal or nonfatal damage to the target. This target can be the enemy’s electronic equipment, personnel, aircraft, naval vessels, missiles, drones etc. Though the R&D related to these weapons started back in the early 1960s, the last twenty years have witnessed the real progress in these weapon systems. According to a Greek legend, Archimedes used a series of mirrors to direct a concentrated beam of sunlight to set ablaze the Greek ships during the siege of Syracuse in 212 BC. Although no concrete historical proof is available regarding this event, it can be rightly attributed as the earliest idea of a DEW. Electromagnetic waves were first discovered by J.C. Maxwell, though theoretically, in 1864. Around 1888, Heinrich Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s theoretical predictions by conducting a series of experiments. This discovery opened a pandora box of opportunities which would later provide the answers to the most complex questions about this universe. This discovery also enabled mankind to develop contemporary technologies which have now become the backbone of the human civilisation. During 1930s Nikola Tesla talked about certain weapons like ‘Death Ray’ and ‘Tesla Shield’ which appear to be based on the utilisation of electromagnetic disturbances. Due to the lack of funding, he discontinued his research and spent the last years of his life in seclusion. In June 1986, Rand Corporation prepared a research report for the United States Air Force with the name ‘The Soviet Union and the Strategic Defence Initiative(SDI): Preliminary Findings and Impressions.’ The report extensively talks about the ‘Strategic Defence Initiative’ or ‘Star Wars’ which was a brainchild of the US President Ronald Reagan. It aimed at developing an air defence system against the Nuclear Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). The US government, during the timeline of this initiative, invested a lot of funds and manpower to develop the cutting-edge systems capable of harnessing various forms of directed energy like lasers and particle beams. In response to this, the USSR kicked off its own programme which was similar to the American SDI. The USSR also established Terra-3 as its Laser Testing Centre which was located at the Sary Shagan Anti-Ballistic Missile testing range in Kazakhstan. After analysing a photograph taken by the US reconnaissance satellite KH-11, some researchers are of the view that the USSR, during the Cold War, was operating a Scalar Longitudinal Wave weapon. As per Lt. Col. Thomas Bearden (ret.) who also served as a scientist at the US Department of Defence, the weapon in the picture was a kind of scalar interferometer and the USSR was using it for years to modify the weather in the targeted areas. According to him, this device was based on the principle of extraction of quantum vacuum energy which was discovered by Thomas Henry Moray in the 1920s. There are some instances when Soviets claimed to have built a Scalar Potential Howitzer, especially during Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) negotiations. But no such proofs or documents are available to support this statement, at least not in the public domain. The disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War resulted in the reduction of the nuclear arsenal of both the US and Russia and, in 1993, the SDI was finally dissolved. The SDI was succeeded by the Ballistic Missile Defence Organisation (BMDO) but with reduced funding. Most of the projects under the SDI were discontinued. Several programmes like Brilliant Eyes, Brilliant Pebbles etc got transferred under BMDO. 1. Particle Beam Weapons (PBWs): PBWs use an accelerated beam of charged/uncharged atomic and subatomic particles towards the target. Due to the tremendously high velocities of the particles, matching almost the speed of light, these particles possess a very large amount of kinetic energy which produces catastrophic super-heating on impact and can even cause an explosion in the target material. On penetration, it can knock out electrons from the atoms of the target thus ionising it. Two types of particle beams can be used in PBWs i.e., charged particle beam and uncharged particle beam. Uncharged particle beam has some advantages over the charged particle beam. Firstly, an uncharged particle beam is not affected by the magnetic field of the earth, unlike the charged particle beam which is vulnerable to the bending due to the earth’s EM field. Secondly, the charged particle beam has a tendency to spread outwards due to the presence of the repulsive force produced by the like-charged particles. This is not the case with an uncharged particle beam. Thirdly, if used in the atmosphere, charged particle beam dissipates its charge to the air molecules to create ions. This kind of weapon systems uses the same technology as used in particle accelerators like the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) which are used in nuclear research. Though the technology used in the particle accelerators has matured greatly over the past years, miniaturising the particle accelerators is the main issue with these weapon systems. So, despite the active usage of this technology, a deployable weapon system based on this technology is not possible in the near future. 2. High-power microwave (HPM) based DEWs: An HPM based DEW uses electromagnetic waves of peak power ranging from 100MW-100GW and an operating frequency of the range 1-300 GHz to produce electromagnetic interference in order to sabotage enemy’s electronic equipment. They produce a very short pulse of very high energy that produces a catastrophic surge of voltage in the circuits of electronic and electrical devices and thus damage semiconductor devices. These weapons have the capability to target even the underground targets which are not susceptible to damage by the conventional explosives. HPM based DEWs can be used against airborne missiles, aircraft, tanks, radars, C3I infrastructure, personnel etc. Low Power Microwave based DEWs can be used in riot control also to dissipate the mob. Currently, the US is using a similar system which is named Active Denial System and it was also deployed in Afghanistan but never used. They can be rightly called the ‘weapons of electrical mass destruction.’ They are not only lethal for electronic equipment but also hazardous for human health as microwaves produce heating effects in human beings and can be fatal if the energy of the directed microwave is very high. Low energy microwave can also be hazardous as they have the ability to cause neurasthenia and heart blood vessel system disorder. The main advantage of these weapons is that HPMs face a smaller number of propagation issues as compared to Particle Beam and High-Energy Laser DEWs. They can be used in any type of weather and efficiently propagate through rain, fog, mist, dust, smog and clouds. HPM is can be more effective when the aim is to sabotage a large number of enemy targets at the same time. This technology can also be used to make HPM bombs which are capable of releasing a high-power electromagnetic pulse (EMP). Also known as e-bombs, they can be mounted on cruise missiles as warheads or can be dropped on the target by the bombers. They can be rightly called the ‘weapons of electrical mass destruction.’ 3. Laser-based DEWs: Laser-based DEWs, as the name suggests, use concentrated laser beams to neutralise the enemy target. The type and power of the laser used in this type of weapons totally depend upon the nature of the target and the nature of the damage that is to be inflicted upon the target. If the target is some aircraft, missile or a vehicle and the intended aim is to create a hole in it, then the power output of the laser should be in Megawatts. But if the target is some electro-optical sensor, then a low power laser would suffice. Despite achieving great advancements in the field of laser technology, this type of DEWs is still in their nascent stage. There are several issues with the laser weapons which raise questions about their practical usages on the battlefield. The first issue is with their range because the efficiency of laser decreases in fog, dust, clouds, smoke, smog, snow and rain. In the case of High Energy Laser, ‘thermal Blooming’ drastically decrease its efficiency and range. Thermal Blooming i.e., 'the distortion of the laser beam is the result of heating of the path by absorption of a small fraction of the laser beam power by the medium which changes the index of refraction and therefore distorts the beam. Thermal-blooming effects can limit the laser powers which can be effectively propagated through the atmosphere, or in media which absorb laser power such as industrial or laboratory environments, liquid or gas cells, or even laser active media themselves.' There are both pros and cons of DEWs when compared with Kinetic Energy Weapons. Advantages of DEWs: - DEWs can attack the target with or with near the speed of light. - Some DEWs like High Energy Laser or high-power microwave have very high penetration power. High Energy Laser can burn a hole very deep inside a target whereas, Microwave weapons can easily pass through thick walls and can affect the enemy’s electronic infrastructure through a little hole or the power supply wires or antennas etc. - They have a deep magazine/clip capacity. It means that they can be fired repetitively until the power needed to run the system is available. This a big edge over conventional kinetic energy weapons which have limited ammunition. - They can be operated with extreme accuracy and precision. - Though the development of DEWs is cost-intensive but using them is very cheap as compared to the conventional Kinetic Energy Weapons. For example, Circa is estimated to cost $1 per shot whereas one Patriot Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3) missile costs $3.3m. - Amount of the output energy can be scaled up or down according to the requirements of the operations i.e., they can be operated as non-lethal, lethal, disruptive and destructive weapons. - Due to the high speed of the EM waves and the low radar cross-section of these weapons due to their silent working, they can operate stealthily. - They can engage multiple targets simultaneously. Disadvantages of DEWs: - Laser and Particle-Beams travel in a straight line. Due to this factor, ground-based DEWs would not be able to attack the Beyond Visual Range (BVR) targets. For this purpose, space/aerial-based DEWs must be used to cover a larger which are still in their nascent stage. - These weapons are power-hungry. To keep these weapon systems active, a powerful energy source is required which makes them susceptible to the enemy’s firepower. - Though these weapons attack the adversary with almost the speed of light, the beam has to be focused for a particular amount of time. - The efficiency of DEWs, especially lasers, is greatly reduced in adverse weather conditions like fog, smog, rain, mist, snow and clouds. Moreover, the Blooming Effect is still a concern for the High Energy Lasers which deter their range, precision and efficiency. India has been doing research on the operationalisation of DEWs since the late 1980s. Some progress has been made in Particle Beam and Laser technology by India. In order to make these weapon systems operable in a short span of time, DRDO has dedicated its two laboratories i.e., Laser Science & Technology Centre (LASTEC) and Centre for High Energy Systems (CHESS) for the R&D in the Directed Energy domain and also to lure private sector in this domain. Due to the secrecy maintained over the status of these weapon technologies, not much is there in the public domain. Reportedly, India has developed a Linear Electron Accelerator system called KALI to destroy the enemy’s long-range missile. There are reports in the media that the project was started back in 1989. Not much is known about this project. It detects the incoming missiles and other aerial targets and shoots “powerful pulses of Relativistic Electrons Beams (REB)” in order to sabotage the electronics of the target. It is a joint venture of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). In 2004, during the BARC Foundation Day speech, the Director of BARC said that “high power pulse electron accelerator KALI-5000 has been commissioned at an energy of 650 keV and an electron beam power of 40 GW. High power microwaves having a frequency in the range of 3-5 GHz and power 1-2 GW have been generated.” There are reports that India successfully test-fired 1-KW laser weapon in August 2017. The test was conducted at Chitra Durga to destroy a target at a distance of 250 metres. The most important thing to note here is that the laser beam took 36 seconds to effectively destroy the target. This is a modest development as compared to the weapon systems of the other nations. In 2018, during a parliamentary question round, the Minister of State for Defence said that the DRDO has developed an anti-drone weapon system which can be mounted on vehicles and will be mass-produced by involving the Indian Defence Private Sector. Basically, the DRDO has developed two anti-drone DEWs. One is a vehicle-mounted 10-KW laser with a range of 2 km and other is a compact tripod-mounted 2-KW laser with a targeting range of 1 km. In 2019, the DRDO chief Sateesh Reddy said, “We have begun the R&D of 50 kW DEW, including ship motion compensation. The laser propagation study for long-range (10 km) is on, including lethality study for various target materials. The bigger goal of development of a 100-kW system in future also has taken wing.” Among the other Indian DEW projects, one is Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser (COIL) which is a 30-100 KW trailer-mounted High Energy Laser which is being developed by LASTEC. India is also working on an air defence dazzler/laser which would take on the electro-optical sensors of incoming enemy aircraft and helicopters. A 25-KW laser weapon system with a range of 5-7 km is also under development which would destroy the incoming missiles at the terminal stage. Recently, some reports have been surfaced in Indian Media which talk about the Indian defence technological roadmap. As per a Times of India report regarding the same: “the Army and IAF need at least 20 ‘tactical high-energy laser systems’ that can destroy ‘small aerial targets’, electronic warfare and radars systems at a range of 6-8 km in Phase-I. In Phase-II, the laser systems should have a range of over 20 km to take on ‘soft-skinned’ vehicles and troops from ground and aerial platforms. Similarly, at least 20 high-power electromagnetic weapon systems are required for the forces, with 6-8 km range in Phase-I and over 15-km in Phase-II.” China: In late 2020, then US Secretary of Defence Mark Esper at the Air Force Association’s Virtual Air, Space & Cyber Conference stated that Moscow and Beijing have weaponized space through killer satellites and directed energy weapons. Since 2010, Chinese researchers at the Northwest Institute of Nuclear Technology in Xi'an have been working on a portable Microwave based DEW. In 2014, China Poly Corporation Ltd displayed its WB-1 active-denial system using microwaves with an 80m range. In 2014, China tested Low Altitude Guard I (LAG I), a 10-KW anti-drone laser system. In 2016, Low Altitude Guard II (LAG II) was unveiled as a 30-KW laser system with a 4 km range. In 2017, Poly Technologies displayed The Silent Killer, a 50-70 KW fiber-optic laser weapon. In 2018, CASIC revealed the LW-30 anti-aircraft laser system with a 30-KW laser and 25 km reported range. China has also conducted EMP field experiments in Xinjiang and developed naval laser systems for Type 055 destroyers. The United States: The U.S. military doubled its DEW spending between FY2017 and FY2019 ($535 million to $1.1 billion). In 2014, the US Navy deployed the 30-KW AN/SEQ-3/LaWS on USS Ponce (later moved to USS Portland). In January 2021, Lockheed Martin delivered the 60-KW HELIOS system (scalable to 300-KW) mounted on USS Preble. DARPA and General Atomics are developing the 150-KW HELLADS and the compact 75 kg ACCEL particle-beam accelerator. The US Navy is advancing programs under the Navy Laser Family of Systems (NLFoS), including the 150-KW SSL-TM and ODIN dazzler on USS Dewey. The US Air Force plans to integrate laser DEWs onto fighter jets before 2025, and Boeing/General Atomics are developing a 100-250 KW laser system. Russia: In July 2018, the Russian MoD showcased the Peresvet combat laser system, commissioned starting in 2017. In June 2019, Almaz-Antey began an airborne anti-satellite laser project under the Sokol-Echelon initiative. Russia is also fielding the 5P-42 Filin visual-optical interference station on Admiral Gorshkov-class frigates. The UK: The Dragonfire Laser Directed Energy Weapon Capability Demonstrator Programme is led by a consortium spearheaded by MBDA alongside DSTL, Leonardo, QinetiQ, Arke, BAE Systems, Marshall, and GKN. DSTL and GKN are also exploring F1 Flywheel energy storage systems (FESS) for naval pulse power. Israel: Israel developed a solid-state laser system and launched a three-tier laser program to supplement the Iron Dome with ground-based, vehicle-mounted, and airborne platforms. Germany: In January 2021, BAAINBw contracted ARGE (Rheinmetall and MBDA Deutschland) to fabricate and test a naval laser demonstrator on the F-124 Sachsen frigate in 2021–2022, alongside work for K130 corvettes. France: MBDA France opened a dedicated laser testing facility in Bordeaux to evaluate laser interactions with various materials. Being undefined under any International Law, legal regime or multilateral organisations, DEWs pose a serious threat as they can be stockpiled and used in an uncensored way by the states and non-state actors. The major problem in tackling the DEW is that it is very difficult to limit the use of lasers, electromagnetic waves and other technologies associated with the development of these weapon systems. Though, there are some legal regimes applicable to the DEW, which are majorly at the national level and are associated with the humanitarian law with the major focus on right to life primarily health. The major technologies behind DEWs like the microwave, laser, and particle accelerator are regulated to different degrees under the national laws. In 1990, the ‘UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials’ (BPUFF), made a statement on the governing use of force in law enforcement, “The development and deployment of non-lethal incapacitating weapons should be carefully evaluated in order to minimise the risk of endangering uninvolved persons, and the use of such weapons should be carefully controlled.” This applies to the use of DEW as well. Apart from the national laws, there are multiple provisions under the IHL i.e., International Humanitarian Law that limit the use of DEW to a large extent. For instance, “The 1995 Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons (Protocol IV to the 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons) prohibits the use of blinding laser weapons as a means or method of warfare as well as their transfer, to any state or non-state actor.” Though the definition of ‘Permanent Blindness’ in the protocol is not up to the modern standard and is considered of having an unscientific approach it can be dealt with taking into consideration the development in the technological and scientific domain. Certain questions are arising out of the potential use and development in the domain of DEWs such as legal void on the unintended and unintentional harm caused by the use of DEW, damage to the environment, hazardous effect of the toxic chemicals in case of an accident etc. There are numerous potential adverse effects which revolve around the use of DEW and the uncertainties, gap areas which need to be addressed are also increasing each day with the increasing technological advancement. The concerns related to the development and potential use of the DEW needs to be addressed with the precautionary approach rather than having a knee-jerk response after some disaster as the DEW is a reality which is approaching the mankind. There is a need for the countries to sit together and develop an international mechanism addressing the same. Due to the dual-use nature of both laser and microwave technology, laser and microwave-based DEWs are highly susceptible to proliferation. This weapon technology can be proliferated to two types of actors, Non-state actors and the state actors. In the case of non-state actors like terrorist organisations, drug cartels etc, High Energy Laser and High-Power Microwaves are least susceptible to proliferation because of the very high cost and very critical technology associated with this class of weapons. Moreover, acquiring the power supply infrastructure for these weapon systems would be a serious problem for these non-state actors. But low energy lasers like dazzlers and low power microwaves can be very easily proliferated due to low cost and easy availability of the constituent parts. Also, a lot of research and information is available in the public domain regarding the low energy laser and microwave technologies. There are chances that irresponsible or rogue states like Pakistan and North Korea can try their hands on the classified and secret technologies behind High Energy Lasers and High-Power Microwave weapon systems. North Korea has been continuously deploying cyber warfare tactics to intrude into the systems of the US private sector defence corporations, armed forces and other government organisations. The proliferation of the blueprints can be done through such type of cyber-attacks. Day by day, China is making great advances in the DEW technology. Economic, military and diplomatic relations between China and Pakistan are not hidden from anybody. After analysing the past instances related to the proliferation of nuclear weapons to Pakistan, the possibility of Pakistan acquiring this type of disruptive technology from China cannot be denied. Moreover, Turkey has also developed its own laser-based DEW known as ALKA. Geopolitical experts have been continuously talking about the formation of Non-Arab Alliance between Pakistan, Iran and Turkey to counter Israeli and Saudi influence in the Middle East. Reportedly, this alliance has been backed by Russia and China in order to fill up the power vacuum created by the declining presence of the US in the Middle East. It can be expected that soon the DEW technology especially in laser and microwave domain will eventually proliferate to Iran, Pakistan and North Korea. Directed Energy technology reaching in the hands of Pakistan based terrorist organisation is another cruel reality for Indian Armed Forces and policymakers. Beijing’s repetitive assertive actions on the Sino-Indian border are in line with its intent to pursue its belligerent foreign policy in a post-COVID world. Chinese advancements in weaponizing electromagnetic waves and laser are a clear threat to India’s sovereignty. Though India is in the pursuit of acquiring the cutting-edge disruptive technologies for unconventional warfare, it should ramp up its initiatives to gain a strategic edge against its adversaries. Alongside acquiring the attacking capabilities in DEW domain, working on counter-measure strategies against DEWs would be a wise option for India in this new era of technological warfare.