SCIENTIA SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING HIGHLIGHTS: • The Unexpected Spirals of Electron Density • Catching the Wind: Understanding the Dynamics of Renewable Energy • Hope for Humanity in the Energy Crisis: Astronomical Jets in a Lab • Mixing Analogue and Digital Computers: The Future is Hybrid EXCLUSIVE: • CERN – The European Organisation for Nuclear Research Issue: #115 Do you want to become a regular READER OF SCIENTIA? Scientia’s mission is to connect people: scientists and educators, policy-makers and researchers, and the public and private sectors. We communicate science into the wider world, providing high-quality, engaging, and relevant information to our audience of thinkers and explorers. Register today for your FREE subscription at: www.scientia.global/subscribe/ WELCOME… In this electrifying edition of Scientia, we showcase the work of various research groups across the globe, each dedicated to shifting paradigms in the diverse fields of physical science and engineering. To begin, we delve deep into the most fundamental building blocks of our Universe – the elementary particles. Here, we explore everything from the trillions of cosmic neutrinos that pass through our bodies every second, to the antimatter positrons used in medical imaging technology. We also feature an exclusive interview with Professor Tara Shears about her team’s recent discovery of five particles at CERN. We then jump up the scales – first showcasing the latest paradigm shifts in molecular science, followed by recent breakthroughs in nanotechnology. Finally, we introduce a team of scientists who investigate (amongst other things) the dynamic behaviour of raindrops, which may help us to more accurately forecast extreme weather events caused by climate change. In our middle section of the edition, we meet many remarkable researchers – each dedicated to combatting climate change and solving the energy crisis through developing and improving sustainable energy technologies. Here, we feature several varied and promising research projects, from boosting the efficiency of wind turbines, to creating the most energy-dense lithium-ion battery, and finally, to realising controlled nuclear fusion as a future power source. Finally, we showcase the latest innovations in computer science and engineering, where we meet an incredible bunch of researchers, each aiming to improve our lives through enhancing our computing technologies. One team of researchers is combining analogue and digital computing to create a device capable of solving large sets of differential equations, while another has created an accurate and affordable virtual reality controller, which holds promise for numerous fields, including medicine, architecture and gaming. From illuminating our understanding of the Universe, to combatting climate change and developing futuristic computing technologies, the research teams featured in this edition are certainly paving the way to a bright future for all. CONTACT Published in the UK, by Science Diffusion Ltd ISSN 2059-8971 (print) ISSN 2059-898X (online) E: [email protected] W: www.sciencediffusion.com W: www.scientia.global MEET THE TEAM… DIRECTOR: Nick Bagnall ([email protected]) EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Dr Nelly Berg ([email protected]) EDITOR: Dr Catriona Houston ([email protected]) DESIGN MANAGER: Mimi Jones PUBLICATION MANAGERS: Brett Langenberg, Nick Powers, Marie Serrano, Tom Render, Hannah Warren CONTRIBUTING WRITERS: Stuart Henry Wilson, PhD; Rebecca Ingle, PhD; Jessica Bristow, PhD; Alma Ionescu, BSc; Matthew Aitkenhead, PhD; Samuel Jarman, MSc; Chris Harrison, PhD; Paul Hattle, BSc; Andrew Breeson, PhD. CONTENTS - ISSUE #115 04 ILLUMINATING OUR PHYSICAL WORLD: FROM QUARKS TO RAINDROPS 07 FIVE NEW PARTICLES DISCOVERED AT CERN - Exclusive interview with Professor Tara Shears 09 THE RAPP CENTER: SEARCHING FOR ANSWERS IN PLASMA-ASTROPARTICLE PHYSICS 14 TICAL AIMS FOR PARADIGM SHIFT IN PET IMAGING - Professor Paul Lecoq 18 THE UNEXPECTED SPIRALS OF ELECTRON DENSITY - Dr Jasper van Wezel 22 CALLING IN THE BIOELECTRICIAN - Dr Andrew K. Udit 26 THE EXACTING TASK OF BRINGING MOLECULES TO ATTENTION - Professor Bretislav Friedrich 32 MONITORING AND CONTROLLING THE DELIVERY OF SINGLE MOLECULES THROUGH NANOPORES - Dr Lisa Burden and Dr Daniel Burden 36 DETERMINING THE TOXICITY OF NANOMATERIALS - The SmartNanoTox team 42 THE SCIENTIFIC AND MATHEMATICAL WORLD OF TEXTILES - Professor Ning Pan 46 HYPERSONIC LASER TAGGING: A NEW WAY OF UNDERSTANDING FLUID MECHANICS - Professor Richard B. Miles 50 UNDERSTANDING PARTICLE-FLUID INTERACTION DYNAMICS IN TURBULENT FLOW - Dr Lian-Ping Wang 54 A FUTURE OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 57 CATCHING THE WIND: UNDERSTANDING THE DYNAMICS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY - Dr Glen Whitehouse 62 THE HIGHEST ENERGY LI-ION BATTERY: UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF THE SILICON ANODE AND NICKEL-RICH NMC CATHODE - Dr Daniela Molina Piper and Dr Tyler Evans 66 THE EXOTIC CHEMISTRY OF THE HEAVIEST ELEMENTS - Professor Thomas E. Albrecht-Schmitt 70 IN SILICO CHEMISTRY: MODELLING THE REACTIONS OF HEAVY ELEMENTS - Dr Kirk A. Peterson 74 CLEANING UP A CATASTROPHE - Professor Peter H. Santschi 78 HOPE FOR HUMANITY IN THE ENERGY CRISIS: ASTRONOMICAL JETS IN A LAB - Professor Setthivoine You 82 LITERAL SUN JARS: SHRINKING STARS FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION - Professor Michael Brown 86 THE COMPUTING REVOLUTION CONTINUES 88 MIXING ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL COMPUTERS: THE FUTURE IS HYBRID - Dr Michael D Bryant and Dr Benito Fernandez 92 USING NOISE TO CONTROL MICROMECHANICAL & MACROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - Professor Balakumar Balachandran 96 MAPPING P-ADIC SPACES WITH HEIGHT PAIRINGS - Professor Amnon Besser 100 ALGORITHMIC ACCELERATION OF COMPUTING PERFORMANCE - Professor Xiaodong Zhang 104 SEARCHING FOR THE PERFECT PICTURE - Dr Gerald Friedland and Jaeyoung Choi 108 CHIRPING COMMUNICATION – SENDING DATA OVER SOUND - Dr Daniel Jones 112 CAPTIVE: A NEW DIRECTION FOR VIRTUAL REALITY CONTROLLERS - Professor Christopher G. Healey and Zeyuan Chen In the first section of this exciting edition, we shine a light on the nuts and bolts of our physical reality. Here, we highlight a diverse mix of research projects, each dedicated to unravelling how matter behaves at a fundamental level. The fields of physics and chemistry have offered us so much more than transforming our understanding of the Universe, they have also laid the foundation for developing technologies that have revolutionised our daily lives – from PCs to GPS satellites, and from life-saving pharmaceuticals to PET scanners. We start off by exploring the smallest units of matter – quarks, neutrinos, electrons, and even antimatter positrons – before leaping up the scales, first to molecules, then nanoparticles and finally, raindrops! To open this section, we showcase a recent discovery made by scientists at CERN in Switzerland, of five previously-unseen subatomic particles (omega_c baryons) announced by the LHCb team on March 16, 2017. Other articles in this section cover the RAPP Center, Dr Paul Lecoq's ultrafast PET scanner development, Dr Jasper van Wezel's electronic spirals, Dr Andrew Udit's bioelectrochemical P450 catalysts, Dr Bretislav Friedrich's molecular orientation using quantum mechanics and SUSY, Dr Lisa and Daniel Burden's nanopore sensing systems, the SmartNanoTox consortium on nanotoxicity, Dr Ning Pan's textile physics, Dr Richard Miles' FLEET velocimetry method, and Dr Lian-Ping Wang's turbulent multiphase particle simulations. Elementary Particles in the Standard Model diagram: - Fermions: - Quarks: Up (u), Charm (c), Top (t), Down (d), Strange (s), Bottom (b) - Leptons: Electron Neutrino (Ve), Muon Neutrino (Vμ), Tau Neutrino (Vτ), Electron (e), Muon (μ), Tau (τ) - Bosons (Force Carriers): - Photon (γ), Gluon (g), Z0 (Weak Force), W± (Weak Force) CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the largest and most powerful particle accelerator ever constructed. The LHCb experiment explores what happened directly after the Big Bang. On March 16th, 2017, the LHCb team announced the discovery of five previously unknown omega_c baryons, composed of one 'charm' and two 'strange' quarks, discovered in a single analysis: omega_c(3000), omega_c(3050), omega_c(3066), omega_c(3090), and omega_c(3119) (masses in MeV/c^2). Interview with Professor Tara Shears discussing the discovery, the role of the strong force in quantum theory, the unique lower luminosity data-taking mode of LHCb, and future prospects for studying exotic multiquark states. The Ruhr Astroparticle and Plasma Physics (RAPP) Center was established in 2015 by Professor Julia Tjus and colleagues within the University Alliance Ruhr (Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Technische Universität Dortmund, and Universität Duisburg-Essen). The Center systematically combines theory and observations across particle, plasma, and astrophysics to investigate: 1. The origin of cosmic rays 2. The nature of neutrinos and dark matter 3. How the interaction of cosmic rays influences the interstellar medium 4. How magnetic fields are generated and maintained in the Universe Key researchers include Prof. Julia Tjus, Prof. Wolfgang Rhode, Prof. Bernhard Spaan, Prof. Gerhard Wurm, Prof. Ralf-Jürgen Dettmar, and Prof. Reinhard Schlickeiser. Projects involve IceCube, the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA), and LHCb. Professor Paul Lecoq and his team at CERN are working on the Time Imaging CALorimeter project (TICAL) and the ULTIMA/TWIST projects to reduce coincidence time resolution (CTR) in Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scanners from ~500 picoseconds down to 10 picoseconds. This allows vastly improved signal-to-noise ratio, reduced radiotracer doses suitable for children and pregnant women, and precise 3D localization. The work combines dense lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) scintillators with ultrafast nano-scintillators (ZnO or CdSe) and nanoimprinted photonic crystal coatings (developed with MIT and aBeam Technologies), alongside silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs). Dr Jasper van Wezel and his team at the University of Amsterdam investigate the spontaneous formation of chiral, corkscrew-shaped electron charge density waves in Titanium-diselenide (TiSe2). By modeling valence electron clouds (which possess spatial shapes such as dumbbells and cloverleaves) and their orbital orientations, they explained how spontaneous symmetry breaking yields chiral electronic structures with wide-ranging implications for conductivity, optical response, and materials engineering. Dr Andrew K. Udit and his team at Occidental College are developing bioelectrochemical systems using cytochrome P450 enzymes on metal electrodes. By substituting the expensive biological cofactor NAD(P)H with direct electrical current and optimizing electrode detergent coatings and molecular wires (such as pyrene), the group aims to create robust, scalable, and green biocatalytic platforms for pharmaceuticals and chemical synthesis. Professor Bretislav Friedrich at the Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society and collaborators study the alignment and orientation of polar and polarizable molecules using combined electrostatic and non-resonant laser fields. They derived exact analytic solutions to the conditionally solvable quantum pendulum / Stark effect Schrödinger equations by employing Supersymmetric Quantum Mechanics (SUSY QM) and established deep connections between exact solvability and the topological avoided crossings of energy surfaces. Dr Lisa Burden and Dr Daniel Burden at Wheaton College develop nanoscale biological membrane sensors and controllable nanovalves. Their research utilizes dual electrical-optical recording, plasmonic localized heating in yoctolitre volumes using gold nanoparticles, and finite element / Brownian motion simulations to analyze capture dynamics and switchable molecular transport across cell membranes. Coordinated by Dr Vladimir Lobaskin (University College Dublin) and funded by EU Horizon 2020, the SmartNanoTox project establishes a mechanism-aware toxicity screening framework for inhaled nanomaterials (e.g., carbon nanotubes, TiO2). Combining in-vivo, in-vitro, and in-silico methods, the consortium investigates biomolecular coronas, membrane lipid pulling, and adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) to construct predictive Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships (QSARs). Professor Ning Pan at UC Davis investigates the micromechanics, thermal transport, and sensory physics of fibrous textiles. His achievements include analytical models of yarn and woven fabric tensile strength, explicit finite element models (ELE) of garment-skin friction and comfort, infrared camouflage textiles utilizing sweat latent heat, and the development of the PhabrOmeter® for standardized measurement of fabric tactile and visual quality. Professor Richard B. Miles at Texas A&M University (formerly Princeton) developed Femtosecond Laser Electronic Excitation Tagging (FLEET). FLEET is an unseeded, non-intrusive velocimetry and thermometry technique that dissociates nitrogen molecules with femtosecond laser pulses, tracking long-lived fluorescent lines at speeds up to Mach 14 in wind tunnels and high-temperature environments exceeding 1500°C. Dr Lian-Ping Wang at the University of Delaware models turbulent multiphase fluid flow using Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS), Point-Particle based DNS (PPDNS), and Hybrid DNS (HDNS). His research clarifies particle settling rates, droplet-droplet collision efficiency in warm rain formation, and industrial sediment and aerosol dynamics across microscopic and macroscopic scales. An overview of sustainable energy challenges in the context of rising global CO2 levels (surpassing 406 ppm in 2017). The section introduces research into wind turbine wake aerodynamics, advanced high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries, actinide chemistry for nuclear waste mitigation, and nuclear fusion research via astrophysical jet simulation and magneto-inertial fusion. Dr Glen Whitehouse and the team at Continuum Dynamics, Inc. (in collaboration with Georgia Tech) developed hybrid aeromechanical computational tools coupling NASA's FUN3D with VorTran-M to accurately and inexpensively predict unsteady aerodynamic loads, wake vortices, and turbine-turbine wake interactions in wind farms. Dr Daniela Molina Piper, Dr Tyler Evans, and Dr Se-Hee Lee at SiILion Inc. redesigned lithium-ion battery architectures by integrating high-loading (80% wt) silicon anodes, nickel-rich NMC cathodes, non-flammable ionic liquid electrolytes, and custom binders to achieve energy densities exceeding 300–390 Wh/kg for electric vehicles. Professor Thomas E. Albrecht-Schmitt at Florida State University (Director of CAST) investigates the fundamental bonding, electronic structure, and radiation resistance of transuranic actinide compounds, including californium borate, berkelium complexes, and mixed-valence plutonium-organic hybrid materials, to assist nuclear waste storage and recycling. Dr Kirk A. Peterson at Washington State University develops Gaussian basis sets and relativistic ab initio computational chemistry methods to accurately model the electronic structure, thermochemistry, and spectroscopy of heavy lanthanide and actinide elements (Th, U, Pu, Cm, Cf, Lr). Professor Peter Santschi and his group at Texas A&M University investigate the biogeochemical mobility and immobilization of radioactive waste contaminants (radioiodine-129, iodine-131, and plutonium-239/240) in contaminated environmental sites such as Hanford, Savannah River, and Fukushima, revealing critical binding interactions with natural organic macromolecules and hydroxamate siderophores. Professor Setthivoine You and his team at the University of Washington lead the Mochi.Labjet Project, recreating astrophysical plasma jets and canonical flux tubes using concentric annular electrodes to study plasma self-organization, magnetic confinement stabilization, and advanced plasma thrusters for deep-space propulsion and compact nuclear fusion. Professor Michael Brown and his team at Swarthmore College investigate Magneto-Inertial Fusion (MIF) via the Swarthmore Spheromak Experiment (SSX), part of the ARPA-E ALPHA program. The project focuses on measuring the Equation of State (EOS) and compressing magnetized plasma structures called Twisted Taylor States. An introduction to the computing section, highlighting the limitations of pure digital architectures for continuous differential equations and introducing hybrid mixed-signal computing, noise-assisted micromechanical oscillators, p-adic mathematics, algorithmic CPU/GPU optimization, machine learning multimedia search, sound-based data transmission, and virtual reality controller innovations. Dr Michael D. Bryant and Dr Benito R. Fernández at the University of Texas at Austin propose a hybrid computing architecture combining analogue integrator cells ('analogue bits') with digital control. The system provides high-speed, programmable solutions to massive systems of coupled differential equations at significantly lower cost and power than conventional supercomputers. Professor Balakumar Balachandran at the University of Maryland explores how intentional injection of white noise into nonlinear coupled oscillator arrays and cantilevers can control Intrinsic Localised Modes (ILMs / breathers), steer dynamic states, and enhance signal processing and pattern recognition in artificial neural networks. Professor Amnon Besser at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev uses p-adic analysis, Coleman integration, and p-adic height pairings (via the quadratic Chabauty method and Kedlaya algorithm) to determine rational and integer points on algebraic, superelliptic, and hyperelliptic curves with applications to cryptography and number theory. Professor Xiaodong Zhang at Ohio State University designs memory management and distributed computing algorithms, including permutation-based page interleaving for DRAM row-buffer conflicts, the LIRS buffer cache replacement algorithm, the RCFile/ORC big data storage format, and the PixelBox GPU geometric polygon overlay algorithm. Dr Gerald Friedland and Jaeyoung Choi at the International Computer Science Institute (ICSI) lead the SMASH and Multimedia Commons projects, enriching the YFCC100M multimedia dataset and providing machine learning and cloud tools on AWS to enable content-based video and image indexing and location prediction. Dr Daniel Jones and the team at Chirp develop data-over-sound acoustic communication technology. By modulating data into audible or ultrasonic acoustic frequencies and demodulating them via software development kits (SDKs), Chirp enables secure, device-agnostic, offline data transfer for public transit (Shuttl in India), smart retail (Kawa Box), and interactive toys (Beat Bugs). Professor Christopher G. Healey and Zeyuan Chen at North Carolina State University developed CAPTIVE, a low-cost, six-degree-of-freedom input device for virtual and augmented reality. The system tracks a 3D-printed wireframe cube with uniquely colored corner spheres using a standard RGB camera at 63 frames per second in HSV color space with near-zero latency. Includes promotional features for SciPod audiobooks (www.scipod.global), Science Diffusion research dissemination services (www.sciencediffusion.com), and the charitable organization Trees for Cities (www.treesforcities.org).