NATIONAL QUANTUM INITIATVE SUPPLEMENT TO THE PRESIDENT'S FY 2025 BUDGET A Report by the SUBCOMMITTEE ON QUANTUM INFORMATION SCIENCE COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE of the NATIONAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL NATIONAL QUANTUM INITIATIVE SUPPLEMENT TO THE PRESIDENT’S FY 2025 BUDGET December 2024 About the National Science and Technology Council The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) is the principal means by which the Executive Branch coordinates science and technology policy across the diverse entities that make up the Federal research and development (R&D) enterprise. A primary objective of the NSTC is to ensure science and technology policy decisions and programs are consistent with the President's stated goals. The NSTC prepares R&D strategies that are coordinated across Federal agencies aimed at accomplishing multiple national goals. The work of the NSTC is organized under committees that oversee subcommittees and working groups focused on different aspects of science and technology. More information is available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp/nstc. About the Office of Science and Technology Policy The Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) was established by the National Science and Technology Policy, Organization, and Priorities Act of 1976 to provide the President and others within the Executive Office of the President with advice on the scientific, engineering, and technological aspects of the economy, national security, homeland security, health, foreign relations, the environment, and the technological recovery and use of resources, among other topics. OSTP leads interagency science and technology policy coordination efforts, assists the Office of Management and Budget with an annual review and analysis of Federal R&D in budgets, and serves as a source of scientific and technological analysis and judgment for the President with respect to major policies, plans, and programs of the Federal Government. For more information, see https://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp. About the NSTC Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science The NSTC Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science was established by the National Quantum Initiative Act and coordinates Federal R&D in quantum information science and related technologies under the auspices of the NSTC Committee on Science. The aim of this R&D coordination is to maintain and expand U.S. leadership in quantum information science and its applications over the next decade. About this Document This document is a supplement to the President’s 2025 Budget request, and serves as the annual report for the National Quantum Initiative called for under the National Quantum Initiative Act. Copyright Information This document is a work of the United States Government and is in the public domain (see 17 U.S.C. §105). Subject to the stipulations below, it may be distributed and copied with acknowledgment to OSTP. Copyrights to graphics included in this document are reserved by the original copyright holders or their assignees and are used here under the Government’s license and by permission. Requests to use any images must be made to the provider identified in the image credits or to OSTP if no provider is identified. Published in the United States of America, 2024. NATIONAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL Chair Arati Prabhakar, Assistant to the President for Science and Technology; Director, OSTP Executive Director (Acting) Lisa E. Friedersdorf, OSTP COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE Co-Chairs Kei Koizumi, Principal Deputy Director for Science, Society, and Policy, OSTP Monica Bertagnolli, Director, NIH Sethuraman Panchanathan, Director, NSF SUBCOMMITTEE ON QUANTUM INFORMATION SCIENCE Co-Chairs Harriet Kung, DOE James Kushmerick, NIST Denise Caldwell, NSF (through Sept. 2024) David Berkowitz, NSF (since Sept. 2024) Gretchen Campbell, OSTP Executive Secretary Alexander Cronin, NSF Members Michael Hayduk, AFRL Laura Parker, DHS John Burke, DOD Linda Horton, DOE Esha Mathew, DOS Rick Muller, IARPA A.C. Charania, NASA (since Nov. 2024) Geetha Senthil, NIH Andrew Wilson, NIST Saúl Gonzalez, NSF Shane Strutz, LPS Allison Curran, ODNI Yi Pei, OMB Deborah Katz, USPTO NATIONAL QUANTUM COORDINATION OFFICE Director Gretchen Campbell, OSTP Staff Brad Blakestad, OSTP Tanner Crowder, OSTP Hilary Hurst, OSTP Thomas Wong, OSTP Table of Contents About the National Science and Technology Council ................................................................................ ii Abbreviations and Acronyms....................................................................................................................... 2 Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 3 1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 4 2 Budget Data ........................................................................................................................................... 6 3 QIS R&D Program Highlights ............................................................................................................... 10 3.1 The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)....................................................... 11 3.2 The National Science Foundation (NSF) ...................................................................................... 16 3.3 The Department of Energy (DOE) ................................................................................................. 20 3.4 The Department of Defense (DOD)............................................................................................... 26 3.5 The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ..................................................... 31 3.6 The National Security Agency (NSA)............................................................................................. 33 3.7 The Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA)................................................... 35 3.8 Concluding remarks for QIS R&D Overview ................................................................................. 36 4 QIS Policy Areas ................................................................................................................................... 37 4.1 Choosing a Science-First Approach to QIS................................................................................... 37 4.2 Creating a Quantum-Smart Workforce for Tomorrow................................................................. 43 4.3 Deepening Engagement with Quantum Industry ........................................................................ 49 4.4 Providing Critical Infrastructure................................................................................................... 51 4.5 Maintaining National Security and Economic Growth ................................................................ 54 4.6 Advancing International Cooperation.......................................................................................... 56 5 Summary and Outlook ........................................................................................................................ 60 AFOSR: Air Force Office of Scientific Research AFRL: Air Force Research Laboratory ARL: Army Research Laboratory ARO: Army Research Office DARPA: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DHS: Department of Homeland Security DOC: Department of Commerce DOD: Department of Defense DOE: Department of Energy DOI: Department of the Interior DOS: Department of State DOT: Department of Transportation ESIX: Subcommittee on Economic and Security Implications of Quantum Science FBI: Federal Bureau of Investigation FFRDC: Federally Funded Research and Development Center IARPA: Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity IC: Intelligence Community IWG: Interagency Working Group LPS: National Security Agency Laboratory for Physical Sciences NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration NDAA: National Defense Authorization Act NIH: National Institutes of Health NIST: National Institute of Standards and Technology NQCO: National Quantum Coordination Office NQI: National Quantum Initiative NQIAC: National Quantum Initiative Advisory Committee NRL: Naval Research Laboratory NRO: National Reconnaissance Office NSA: National Security Agency NSF: National Science Foundation NSTC: National Science and Technology Council ODNI: Office of the Director of National Intelligence OMB: Office of Management and Budget ONR: Office of Naval Research OSTP: Office of Science and Technology Policy OUSD(R&E): Office of the Undersecretary of Defense for Research and Engineering PQC: Post-Quantum Cryptography QED-C: Quantum Economic Development Consortium QIS: Quantum Information Science QIST: Quantum Information Science and Technology R&D: Research and Development SCQIS: Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science USPTO: United States Patent and Trademark Office USDA: United States Department of Agriculture Quantum information science (QIS) is the convergence of two foundational fields underpinning modern technology: quantum mechanics and information theory. This new field is starting to yield transformative new capabilities in computing, sensing, and networking with the potential to improve the Nation’s prosperity and security. Investments in fundamental QIS research are laying a foundation for the technologies of the future and opening new frontiers in science. The Administration is committed to advancing critical and emerging technologies, including QIS, as reaffirmed in the Office of Management and Budget and Office of Science and Technology Policy Priorities Memorandum for Research and Development (R&D) for the Fiscal Year (FY) 2025 Budget. The National Quantum Initiative (NQI) Act was enacted in December 2018 to accelerate American leadership in QIS technology. The NQI Act authorizes U.S. Federal departments and agencies (hereafter, “agencies”) to establish centers and a consortium and carry out new programs to foster QIS R&D. The NQI Act calls for the coordination of QIS R&D efforts across the Federal Government, as well as with industry and the academic community. The Administration has made significant contributions to the NQI over the last year, including holding two roundtables on post-quantum cryptography, publishing the first post-quantum cryptography standards, and publishing the National Science and Technology Council strategy on Advancing International Collaboration in Quantum Information Science and Technology. In addition, the NQI Advisory Committee report on Growing American Leadership in Quantum Networking was published. In line with the National Strategic Overview for QIS, the United States is making substantial and sustained investments in QIS R&D to explore a range of applications and nurture a culture of discovery. Major efforts funded by several agencies are recognized in this report, as well as overviews of agency efforts to make further progress on cross-cutting QIS policy topics. Examples of such topics include overcoming fundamental science and engineering challenges, increasing the workforce capacity, engaging with industry, investing in infrastructure, maintaining economic and national security, and encouraging international cooperation. This is the fifth annual report on the NQI Program and budget, as required by Section 103(g) of the NQI Act. It reports investments in the NQI Program, building upon the establishment of the NQI research centers, the Quantum Economic Development Consortium, and new QIS R&D activities. Agencies reported budget expenditures for QIS R&D of $456 million in FY 2019, $690 million in FY 2020, $851 million in FY 2021, $1,041 million in FY 2022, and $1,036 million in FY 2023, followed by $1,006 million of enacted budget authority for FY 2024 and a requested budget authority of $998 million for FY 2025. While the development of QIS technologies is at an early stage, now is a critical time to develop the fundamental scientific knowledge, infrastructure, and workforce needed for the creation of new applications and use cases for QIS technologies, grow the marketplace, and foster an ecosystem for basic, applied, and translational research in QIS. QIS could have profound and positive impacts on society and the way each agency accomplishes its mission. Agencies are ensuring that all Americans have the opportunity to benefit from participation in QIS, including through efforts that expand the quantum workforce to ensure it reflects the whole of society. Agencies are also taking steps to spur innovation while ensuring that new technologies and capabilities are adequately protected. Quantum information science (QIS) builds on quantum mechanics and information theory to explore applications in computation, networking, sensing, and measurement. In some cases, the performance of QIS technologies may be vastly superior to that of traditional, classical technologies. The world is on the cusp of a second quantum revolution. This technological progress is built on key QIS discoveries in the 1980’s, pioneering QIS experiments in the 1990’s, growth in quantum engineering capabilities in the 2000’s, and the development of commercial activities currently underway. The potential for innovations based on QIS - and the associated implications for jobs and security - motivated the U.S. Government to enact the National Quantum Initiative (NQI) Act to accelerate QIS research and development (R&D) and training opportunities. Box 1.1: COORDINATING BODIES SUPPORTING THE NATIONAL QUANTUM INITIATIVE - The Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science (SCQIS) coordinates Federal R&D in QIS under the auspices of the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) Committee on Science. The SCQIS is co-chaired by the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), National Institute of Technology (NIST), National Science Foundation (NSF), and Department of Energy (DOE). Interagency discussions and recommendations by the SCQIS aim to strengthen U.S. leadership in QIS and its applications over the next decade. SCQIS members are listed in the front matter. - The Subcommittee on Economic and Security Implications of Quantum Science (ESIX) of the NSTC is co-chaired by OSTP, the Department of Defense (DOD), DOE, and the National Security Agency (NSA). In parallel with the SCQIS, ESIX works to ensure that the economic and security implications of QIS are understood across the agencies, while providing a national security perspective on QIS-related R&D policy. - The National Quantum Initiative Advisory Committee (NQIAC) is the Federal advisory committee called for in the NQI Act to advise the administration on ways to ensure continued American leadership in QIS. The NQIAC is tasked to provide an independent assessment of the NQI Program and to make recommendations for the President and the Subcommittees to consider when reviewing and revising the NQI Program. The NQIAC is comprised of leaders in QIS from industry, academia, and the Federal Government. In 2022, an Executive Order on Enhancing the National Quantum Initiative Advisory Committee reconstituted the NQIAC as a Presidential advisory committee. - The National Quantum Coordination Office (NQCO) is located in OSTP within the Executive Office of the President to carry out the daily activities needed for coordinating and supporting the NQI Program. The NQCO is tasked with providing technical and administrative support to the SCQIS, ESIX, and the NQIAC, overseeing interagency coordination of the NQI Program, serving as the point of contact on Federal civilian QIS activities, ensuring coordination among the consortium and quantum centers, and conducting public outreach. The NQCO staff consists of Federal employees on detail assignments from across the Federal Government. NQCO staff are listed in the front matter. The NQI Act became law in 2018 “to provide for a coordinated Federal program to accelerate quantum R&D for the economic and national security of the United States.” The NQI Act authorizes NIST, NSF, and DOE to strengthen and expand QIS programs, centers, and establish a consortium. The NQI Act also calls for the coordination of QIS R&D efforts across the U.S. Government, including the civilian, defense, and intelligence sectors. To guide these actions, the NQI Act designated several responsibilities to the SCQIS, the NQCO, and the NQIAC. Concurrently, the Defense Quantum Information Science and Technology (QIST) R&D Program, as established and then modified by the FY 2019 and FY 2020 National Defense Authorization Acts (NDAAs), respectively, continues DOD’s decades-long history of QIS R&D. The FY 2022 NDAA amended the NQI Act to codify the ESIX Subcommittee and articulate its specific responsibilities. The CHIPS and Science Act of 2022 further amended the NQI Act, authorizing additional activities for NIST, DOE, and the SCQIS. Altogether, the NQI Program provides an overarching framework to strengthen and coordinate QIS R&D activities across agencies, industry, and the academic community. See Box 1.1 for an overview of the different NQI coordinating bodies. The National Strategic Overview for QIS continues to be the overarching strategy for the NQI. It recommends strengthening the United States’ approach to QIS R&D by focusing on six areas: science, workforce, industry, infrastructure, security, and international cooperation. These policy pillars are further developed in additional reports available on www.quantum.gov. The National Strategic Overview for QIS and the ongoing SCQIS and ESIX Subcommittee activities build upon earlier Federal QIS R&D coordination via interagency strategies such as the early efforts described in the 2009 NSTC report on A Federal Vision for QIS and the 2016 NSTC report on Advancing QIS. U.S. QIS R&D efforts are also informed by numerous Federally-funded workshops led by the QIS R&D community. The NQI annual reports describe key activities and the Federal budgets used to support these efforts. Mechanisms to strengthen core programs and coordinate QIS R&D efforts across the Federal Government are also described, as is progress made by the quantum consortium, centers, and institutes established as part of the NQI. The U.S. Federal budgets for QIS R&D presented here summarize FY 2019 – FY 2023 actual expenditures, FY 2024 estimated expenditures, and FY 2025 budget requests. The U.S. QIS R&D budgets increased substantially since FY 2019, with efforts catalyzed by the NQI Program. Figure 2.1 shows overall Federal budgets for U.S. QIS R&D activities aggregated across several agencies including NIST, NSF, DOE, DOD, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Much of the growth in QIS R&D budgets since 2019 is for NQI activities such as the establishment of a quantum consortium by NIST, the NSF Quantum Leap Challenge Institutes (QLCI), the DOE National Quantum Information Science Research Centers (NQISRCs), expansion of the DOD QIS research program, and the coordination and strengthening of core QIS programs across agencies. Sustained investment in U.S. QIS R&D will position American universities, industry, and Government researchers to explore quantum frontiers, advance QIS technologies, and develop the required workforce to continue American leadership in this field and the related industries of the future. Figure 2.1: U.S. R&D budgets for QIS since the inception of the NQI Act. The bar heights represent the total budget for each fiscal year (FY 2019 – FY 2023 actual expenditures, FY 2024 estimated expenditures, and FY 2025 budget request). The portion of each bar marked “NQI” identifies funding allocated for NQI Act-authorized activities; this additional funding is on top of the budgets for baseline QIS R&D activities. NQI Program Component Areas: - Quantum Sensing and Metrology (QSENS) refers to the use of quantum mechanics to enhance sensors and measurement science. QSENS can include the use of superposition and entanglement, non-classical states of light, new metrology regimes or modalities, and advances in accuracy and precision enabled by quantum control, for example with atomic clocks. - Quantum Computing (QCOMP) activities include the development of quantum bits (qubits) and entangling gates, quantum algorithms and software, digital and analog quantum simulators using programmable quantum devices, quantum computers and prototypes, and hybrid digital-analog quantum computing, as well as quantum-classical computing systems. - Quantum Networking (QNET) includes efforts to create and use entangled quantum states that are distributed over distances and shared by multiple parties for new information technology applications and fundamental science; for example, networking of intermediate scale quantum computers (modules) for enhanced beyond-classical computing capabilities. - QIS for Advancing Fundamental Science (QADV) includes foundational efforts to invoke quantum devices and QIS theory to expand fundamental knowledge in other disciplines; for example, to improve understanding of biology, chemistry, computation, cosmology, energy science, engineering, materials, nuclear matter, and other aspects of fundamental science. - Quantum Technology (QT) catalogues several topics including work with end-users to deploy quantum technologies in the field and develop use cases, basic R&D on supporting technologies for QIS engineering, e.g., infrastructure and manufacturing techniques for electronics, photonics, and cryogenics, and efforts to understand and mitigate risks raised by quantum technologies, e.g., post-quantum cryptography (PQC). Figure 2.2 shows budget allocations by NQI PCA for FY 2019 – FY 2025 using a “layer-cake” bar chart for each year. A final breakdown for the budget data presented in Figure 2.3 shows QIS R&D budgets by agency, which includes the total QIS R&D budgets for five agencies prominently engaged in NQI activities: NASA, NIST, DOE, DOD, and NSF. The data presented in Figures 2.1-2.3 show an increased and sustained investment in QIS R&D across the Federal Government and across each PCA since 2019. This is in alignment with each agency’s mission and a coordinated Federal program to accelerate QIS R&D. The budget data were provided by agencies directly to OMB as part of a routine QIS crosscut reporting process to enable coordinated monitoring and implementation of the NQI Program. The NQCO is not accounted for in this budget data because its support is derived from employees on detail from NQI Act agencies who staff the office. To date, DOD, DOE, NIST, NSA, and NSF have detailed staff to the NQCO. Figure 2.2: U.S. QIS R&D Breakout By PCA (QADV, QCOMP, QNET, QSENS, QT) for FY 2019 – FY 2023 actual expenditures, FY 2024 estimated expenditures, and FY 2025 requested budgets. Figure 2.3: NQIA Agency QIS R&D Budgets (NASA, NIST, DOE, DOD, NSF) showing FY 2019 – FY 2023 actual expenditures, FY 2024 estimated expenditures, and FY 2025 requested budgets. The next sections describe how agencies use these budgets to advance QIS R&D. The NQI provides a framework to strengthen and coordinate QIS R&D activities across Federal agencies, and also promotes engagement with industry, academia, National Laboratories, and Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs). As illustrated in Figure 2.4, investments made in fundamental QIS research, education, training, and workforce development across agencies are reinforcing and complementary, strengthening their collective efforts. The resulting ecosystem accelerates American leadership in QIS by simultaneously promoting discovery, exploration, and efforts to develop the market, supply chain, infrastructure, and the capacity to utilize quantum technologies. Section 3 summarizes QIS R&D programs at select agencies and Section 4 tracks progress on key policy topics identified in the National Strategic Overview for QIS. Figure 2.4: Federal QIS R&D funding agencies can be seen as three pillars that support the Federal QIS ecosystem. Civilian science agencies (DOE, NASA, NIST, NSF) stand alongside DOD science agencies (AFOSR, AFRL, ARL, ARO, DARPA, ONR, OUSD(R&E), NRL) and the intelligence community science agencies (IARPA, NSA) to collectively contribute to QIS R&D efforts. Within the Federal Government, support enabling the QIS ecosystem also comes from DOC (BIS, EDA, ITA, USPTO), FBI, State, and potential end users including DHS, DOD, DOI, DOT, NIH, NRO, ODNI, and USDA. Authorization, coordination and oversight are provided by Congress, ESIX, OSTP/NQCO, the NQIAC, and the SCQIS. Pictured here as separate houses, Industry, Academia, and FFRDCs are also critically important for QIS R&D. In this section, QIS R&D activities are described by agency, including NIST, NSF, DOE, DOD, NASA, NSA, and the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA), to provide a more complete description of the U.S. QIS R&D enterprise. While each agency works independently on their respective missions, the collective efforts are crucial for American leadership in QIS. Activities described here accelerate the exploration of basic science and the development of new technologies, with efforts coordinated through coherent policy goals as discussed in Section 4. QIS R&D highlights are featured throughout this report to illustrate the range of discovery and technical achievement of agency programs. In many cases, the results are supported by multiple agencies. Box 3.1: Highlight: Logical qubit encoding with arrays of trapped neutral atoms Figure 3.1: Schematic of a neutral-atom based quantum processor and key operations, including single qubit rotations, mid-circuit readout and real-time processing of quantum information. A pioneering demonstration of quantum algorithms with 48 logical qubits using a few hundred individual physical qubits and several hundred logical quantum gates was performed by researchers in academia, Government, and industry. These experiments demonstrate the key ingredients of scalable error correction and quantum information processing with logical qubits encoded using trapped neutral atoms. The logical qubits were used to carry out operations which outperform the individual (i.e., physical) qubits in neutral-atom arrays by implementing fault-tolerant gates. The output was less error prone than if the qubits had not encoded the information into logical states. Improving the error rates of quantum computers is key to reaching reliable large-scale quantum computation. This research was funded in part by DARPA, IARPA, NSF, ARO, and industry partners. NIST promotes U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement science, standards, and technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve our quality of life. Quantum effects set fundamental limits on measurement precision and therefore, by necessity, NIST has been a global leader in QIS R&D. The emerging U.S. quantum industry faces many technical challenges as it seeks to unlock the transformative potential of QIS. Scaling and connecting quantum systems, improving device performance and robustness, growing the talent pool to perform this work, and developing technical standards that enable businesses to succeed are some of the ways in which NIST is promoting innovation and industrial competitiveness in QIS. More broadly, NIST conducts open, world-class research touching upon all elements of the national QIS agenda, with an emphasis on precision metrology and cybersecurity. NIST advances QIS through its core technical programs on quantum sensing, computing, networking, enabling technologies, risk mitigation, and foundational science, including at its joint institutes – JILA, the Joint Quantum Institute (JQI), and the Joint Center for Quantum Information in Computer Science (QuICS). NIST established and supports an industry-led consortium, the Quantum Economic Development Consortium (QED-C), working to accelerate the growth of the U.S. quantum industry via community building, collaboration, and commercialization. The NIST FY 2025 budget request identified quantum science as one of five strategic focus areas that will position NIST to drive innovation in support of America’s economic security in the coming decades. QIS R&D activities supported by NIST include: - Foundational and applied QIS research on quantum-enhanced sensing, networking, computing, fundamental physics, enabling technologies, and applications in chemistry, biology, healthcare, and security. - PNT/time standards: optical atomic clocks (optical-lattice, trapped-ion, and nuclear-transition clocks). - Integrated photonics for QIS, quantum networking metrology, Rydberg sensors, cryogenic electronics, quantum characterization theory, and early-career workforce support. - Engagement with industry via CRADAs and QED-C (250+ member organizations, 180+ companies). - Workforce development through joint institutes, PREP, SURF, and NRC Postdoctoral Fellowships. - Contributions to NSF and DOE quantum centers (Q-SEnSE, QSA, SQMS, RQS). - Advancing Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) program: released first three finalized standards on August 13, 2024. - State-of-the-art cleanroom facilities (Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology in Gaithersburg, MD; Boulder Microfabrication Facility; NIST on a Chip). - Global metrology collaboration (NMIs, ISO/IEC JTC3 on Quantum Technologies). - International partner engagements across over 30 countries and the Foreign Guest Researcher Program. NIST QIS R&D Activities Highlights: - (June 13, 2023) Chip-scale atomic beam clock demonstrated for GPS-denied timing. - (June 14, 2023) Bosonic error-correcting codes concatenated with qubit codes at QuICS. - (June 21, 2023) Quantum-limited optical time transfer over 300 km between two mountaintops in Hawaii. - (July 18, 2023) Study on entanglement and computational complexity of simulations at QuICS/JQI. - (August 1, 2023) Cold-atom quantum-based primary standard for measuring ultra-low gas pressures. - (October 25, 2023) Nanowire single-photon camera with 400,000 pixels demonstrated with JPL. - (January 24, 2024) BCS superconductor dynamical phases observed in cavity-QED simulator at JILA. - (February 9, 2024) NIST announced new IEC/ISO Joint Technical Committee on Quantum Technologies (JTC3). - (March 7, 2024) Protocol for characterization of low-noise cryogenic microwave amplifiers. - (March 18, 2024) Precision bounds on continuous-variable state tomography using classical shadows at QuICS. - (April 17, 2024) Amplification of quantum interactions through squeezing for fidelity improvement. - (April 23, 2024) Modified common lab cryostat to cool faster and with less energy. - (May 8, 2024) Atomic boson sampler based on a neutral atom array at JILA. - (May 2, 2024) Quantum simulation of magnetism and Mössbauer effect in atom interferometer at JILA. - (May 9, 2024) Entangled photon pair generation in integrated silicon carbide platform. - (July 10, 2024) Optical atomic clock with record-breaking low (8×10⁻¹⁹) systematic uncertainty at JILA. - (July 29, 2024) Coherent coupling and non-destructive measurement in trapped-ion quantum processor. - (September 4, 2024) Clock based on nuclear energy levels demonstrated at JILA. Box 3.2: Highlight: Towards large-scale integration of quantum dots and photonic structures NIST researchers developed traceable standards and calibrations for cryogenic optical microscopes enabling the alignment of quantum dots and photonic structures to within 10 to 20 nanometers. NSF promotes the progress of science by funding research at over 2,000 academic institutions throughout the United States. Over 9,000 people (faculty, students, postdocs) and over 260 colleges and universities are supported by NSF QIS grants. NSF's budget articulates three goals: (1) Answer key science and engineering questions; (2) Deliver proof-of-concept devices and quantum advantages; (3) Generate the quantum-literate workforce. QIS R&D Programs at NSF: - Quantum Leap Challenge Institutes (QLCIs): 5 sites collaborating with 117 academic institutions and 67 industry partners, engaging 160 faculty, 140 postdocs, 550 students, and producing 570+ publications. - National Quantum Virtual Laboratory (NQVL): Supports community infrastructure, testbeds, and translational research. - Core NSF Programs: Approximately 1,600 projects at 260+ institutions across 47 states. - Expanding Capacity (ExpandQISE): 56 projects funded with $99M, including awards to HBCUs, EPSCoR jurisdictions, MSIs, and non-R1 institutions. - Foundries and Centers: Quantum Foundries, Physics Frontiers Centers, Center for Quantum Information and Control, ERCs, MRSECs, National Quantum Nanofab project, and CCIs. NSF QIS Highlights: - Dear Colleague Letter (NSF 24-042) on engineering research in QISE. - Future Manufacturing solicitation (NSF 24-525) for quantum devices, circuits, and systems. - Regional Innovation Engines grant awarded for 'Quantum Crossroads' in Illinois/Wisconsin. - NSF Quantum Research Showcase in Washington, D.C. - NSF-NIH Pathfinder Supplements on Quantum Sensors for Biomedical Science (NSF 24-086). - $20M award for a National Quantum Nanofab (NQN) facility. - Bilateral NSF/UKRI workshop on QIS in Chemistry and joint funding opportunity. Box 3.3: Highlight: Article surveys the current status of quantum computing algorithms NSF-supported survey paper 'Quantum algorithms: A survey of applications and end-to-end complexities' tabulates quantum algorithms and applications, supported alongside resources like the Quantum Algorithm Zoo. DOE SC supports a diverse portfolio of QIS research across ASCR, BES, BER, FES, HEP, IP, NP, and NNSA, establishing five National QIS Research Centers (NQISRCs). Core Areas: - Quantum sensing (biosensors, bioimaging, dark matter/energy exploration, plasma diagnostics, nuclear clocks). - Quantum computing (algorithms, complexity theory, software stacks, hardware, testbeds, simulation). - Quantum networking (entanglement distribution, quantum repeaters, teleportation, distributed architectures). - Supporting infrastructure & user facilities (Nanoscale Science Research Centers, X-ray light sources, cryogenics, isotope production including ytterbium-171/172, silicon-28, rubidium-87, helium-3 stockpile). - Interdisciplinary centers and user programs: Quantum Computing User Program at ORNL, Quantum Computing Testbeds for Science at Sandia and LBNL. Funding Announcements & R&D Highlights: - $11.4M FES awards on QIS for Fusion Energy Sciences. - ASCR FOA for Accelerated Research in Quantum Computing ($45M) and $65M awards across 10 projects. - BER awards for bioimaging, high-speed imaging platforms, and quantum-enhanced Raman microscopy. - HEP $70M funding announcement: QIS Enabled Discovery for High Energy Physics. - BES awards for Energy Frontier Research Centers (EFRCs). - LBNL/FES programmable optical qubit creation using femtosecond laser pulses in silicon (Box 3.4). - 2023 Gordon Bell Prize awarded to international team including ORNL for quantum accuracy in materials simulation. - Sandia/ASCR finding that quantum computers offer significant memory efficiency benefits. - Demonstration of quantum state control of CaOH polyatomic molecules in optical tweezers at QSA. DOD classifies quantum science as one of its 14 critical technology areas, supported by OUSD(R&E), DARPA, AFRL, AFOSR, ARL, ARO, NRL, ONR, and DIU. Program Areas: - Atomic Clocks: Next Generation Atomic Clock (NGAC), Low-Cost Chip-Scale Atomic Clock (LCCSAC), Rack Mounted Optical Clock (RMOC), USNO Master Clock, AFRL QST, DARPA H6, and DARPA ROCkN. - Quantum Sensors: DIU Transition of Quantum Sensors (TQS) 6.3 budget activity; Center for Excellence in Advanced Quantum Sensing; DARPA SAVaNT, Quantum Apertures, Macaroni, QuIVER; DIU QuIX and Q-TIP. - Quantum Computing: DARPA US2QC, Quantum Benchmarking Initiative (QBI), IMPAQT, and numerous MURIs. - Materials Research: Defect engineering, non-Hermitian materials, solid-state qubits, and semiconductor-superconductor interfaces. - Quantum Networks: Service lab initiatives (AFRL, ARL, NRL), DC-QNet, DARPA QuANET, FALQON. Highlights: - DIU flight testing of integrated atomic gyroscope and accelerometer (QuIX). - Ytterbium-171 neutral atom qubit error erasure conversion. - Strain-engineered diamond membranes for tin-vacancy spin qubits at higher temperatures. - NRL continuous 3D-cooled atom beam interferometer for drift reduction in naval navigation. - ONR atom-interferometer gravimeter achieving 6 nm/s² accuracy. - Box 3.5: Magnetic Anomaly Navigation (MagNav) flight tests on manned operational platforms as a GPS alternative. NASA drives QIS advances across HQ, JPL, GRC, ARC, and GSFC. Key Activities: - Cold Atom Lab (CAL) aboard the ISS: first dual-species atom interferometry in space (87Rb and 41K) and vibration measurements. - Preparations for BECCAL (Bose-Einstein Condensate Cold Atom Lab) in partnership with DLR, launching to ISS in 2027 (Box 3.6). - SEAQUE (Space Entanglement and Quantum Annealing Experiment) launched to ISS. - Quantum-based x-ray microcalorimeter on JAXA's XRISM mission. - Nanowire single-photon detector at Mount Palomar detecting deep space optical signals from Psyche. - Goddard Quantum Network Initiative and participation in DC-QNet. - QuEST Laboratory and Quantum Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (QuAIL) at Ames Research Center. NSA sponsors and conducts QIS R&D via the Laboratory for Physical Sciences (LPS). Key Activities: - LPS Qubit Collaboratory (LQC) and Qubits for Computing Foundry (QCF) in partnership with MIT Lincoln Laboratory (shipped 145 devices by April 2024). - Programs: QCS5, TINA (Trapped Ions and Neutral Atoms), QCISS, NEQST, and Materials Characterization and Quantum Performance. - Box 3.7: Record-breaking 1-qubit (>99.9978%) and 2-qubit (>99.9%) gate fidelities on Fluxonium superconducting qubits. - Quantum sensing for near-field magnetometry and materials characterization. IARPA conducts high-risk, high-payoff R&D for the Intelligence Community. Key Program: - Entangled Logical Qubits (ELQ): Four-year program aiming to demonstrate high-fidelity logical entangled states and teleportation of cardinal logical states between error-corrected logical qubits with >=95% average success rate. - Box 3.8: Explores diverse logical qubit architectures (surface code, Steane color code, heavy-hex code) across superconducting, neutral atom, and trapped ion platforms. Focuses on foundational QIS R&D to establish critical technical foundations and nurture discovery: - Over 5,000 scholarly publications per year acknowledge U.S. government funding (3,500+ NSF, 2,500+ DOE, 1,500+ DOD). - NIH biomedical initiatives (Qu-BIT Prize Challenges, biomedical quantum computing innovation labs). - Quantum Networking IWG and DC-QNet dark-fiber interagency testbed. - Implementation of the national quantum sensing strategy 'Bringing Quantum Sensors to Fruition' across DHS, AFRL, DIU, NASA, NSF, and NIH. Addresses talent shortages and broadens participation: - Action 1: Understanding workforce needs (QED-C jobs portal, NSF/NSA workforce studies, EntanglementExchange.org). - Action 2: Introducing broader audiences (National Q-12 Education Partnership, QCamp for Students and Teachers, C2QA workshops, museum exhibits). - Action 3: Professional education, short courses, summer schools (C2QA Summer School, US QIS Summer School at ORNL, NSA Summer of Quantum, university degree programs, SURF, and graduate fellowships). - Action 4: Making careers accessible (AFOSR National Science Portal for HBCU/MSIs, DOE RENEW, QIS Career Fairs, Box 4.1 NSF ExpandQISE investing $99M across 56 projects). Accelerates commercialization and supply chain strength: - Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and STTR funding. - QED-C growth to 250+ member organizations across 39 allied nations. - DOC International Trade Administration (ITA) supply chain bottleneck analyses and export discussions. - NSF Industry-University Cooperative Research Centers (IUCRC) and Translation testbeds. Provides shared facilities, foundries, and user resources: - NIST cleanrooms and Boulder microfabrication facilities. - LPS Qubit Foundry at MIT Lincoln Lab. - Fermilab SQMS Quantum Garage and QUIET/LOUD underground/aboveground facilities. - DOE ASCR quantum testbeds and cloud access programs. - DARPA/State of Illinois Quantum Proving Ground. - NSF National Quantum Virtual Laboratory (NQVL) and $20M National Quantum Nanofab (NQN). - DOC EDA Tech Hubs (e.g., $41M awarded to Elevate Quantum Tech Hub). Balancing innovation with research security and risk mitigation: - Codification of ESIX Subcommittee under NDAA FY22 to assess security, supply chain, and export risks. - Box 4.2: Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) standards released by NIST in August 2024 (FIPS standards) and OMB PQC migration guidance. - DOC BIS worldwide export controls on quantum computers and related technologies. - Treasury Final Rule implementing Executive Order 14105 (Outbound Order) restricting investments in sensitive quantum technologies. - NSF research security framework (TRUST) and research security training modules. Promoting international research partnerships with trusted allies: - Joint Cooperation Statements signed with Germany (May 2024), joining 10 prior allied nations. - Multilateral roundtables ('2^N vs. 2N') and launch of Quantum Development Group. - Entanglement Exchange portal for researcher exchanges. - Co-sponsoring UN General Assembly resolution designating 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology. - Agency bilateral research partnerships (NSF Global Quantum Leap, DOE international partners, AUKUS Pillar II initiatives, OUSD(R&E) International Workshop). Figure 5.1 outlines the timeline of actions establishing and implementing the NQI (from the 2018 NQI Act, NDAAs, CHIPS and Science Act, and national policy directives). As the NQI enters its second five years, SCQIS and ESIX, supported by NQCO and NQIAC, will continue updating strategic plans, evaluating metrics, and prioritizing federal investments to ensure continued U.S. leadership in QIS for economic prosperity and national security.