U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel: Overview and Developments since October 7, 2023

Summary

This Congressional Research Service report provides a comprehensive overview of U.S. foreign and military assistance to Israel, covering historical context and key developments following the October 7, 2023 attacks. It details bilateral aid allocations, emergency supplemental appropriations, arms sales, missile defense cooperation including Iron Dome and Iron Beam, and legislative oversight mechanisms such as the Leahy Law and Joint Resolutions of Disapproval.

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U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel: Overview and Developments since October 7, 2023 Updated May 28, 2025

Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov RL33222

CRS REPORT Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress

Summary

U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel: Overview and Developments since October 7, 2023

Israel is the largest cumulative recipient of U.S. foreign assistance since World War II. Successive Administrations, working with Congress, have provided Israel with assistance reflective of robust domestic U.S. support for Israel and its security; shared strategic goals in the Middle East; and historical ties dating from U.S. support for the creation of Israel in 1948. To date, the United States has provided Israel $174 billion (current, or non-inflation-adjusted, dollars) in bilateral assistance and missile defense funding.

Over the last two decades, including during Israel’s ongoing conflict with Hamas, American public attitudes toward Israel as expressed in public-opinion polling have shifted somewhat when compared to previous eras. Though lawmakers continue to vote in favor of U.S. assistance to Israel, there have been calls from some political and ideological groups to reevaluate the long-standing U.S.-Israeli assistance relationship.

In 2016, the U.S. and Israeli governments signed their third 10-year Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on military aid, covering FY2019 to FY2028. Under the terms of the MOU, the United States pledged to provide—subject to congressional appropriation— $38 bi l l i o ninmi l i t a r y ai d ($ 33 billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) grants plus $5 billion in missile defense appropriations) to Israel. While negotiations over the next MOU have yet to start, U.S. and Israeli experts and government officials have already started to formulate proposals to shape future U.S.-Israeli military cooperation.

Since the Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023 and Israel’s subsequent conflicts in Gaza, Lebanon, and Iran, Congress has provided emergency supplemental military assistance to Israel and appropriated funding beyond the annual MOU terms for joint U.S.-Israeli missile defense programs. In April 2024, Congress passed P.L. 118-50 (Making emergency supplemental appropriations for the fiscal year ending September 30, 2024, and for other purposes). That act included, among other things, $3.5 bi l l i o nin F M F f or I sr a e l . T h e a c t a l so in c l u d e d$ 5.2 billion in defense appropriations for missile defense ( $4 bi l l i o n) an d I sr a e l^{'} s n e w l a ser d e f e n sesy s t e m, I r o n B e am ($ 1.2 billion).

P.L. 119-4, the Full-Year Continuing Appropriations and Extensions Act, 2025, provides FMF to Israel at the FY2024 base level ( $3.3 bi l l i o n) . T h e a c t a l soco n t ain sse v er a l I sr a e l - s p ec i f i c p r o v i s i o n sor an o ma l i es, s u c ha s : S ec t i o n 11206 (1) s p ec i f i es F Y 2025 F M F f or O f f - S h or e P r oc u r e m e n t f or I sr a e l (p er t h e t er m so f t h e M O U) a t$ 450.3 million; Section 11208(c) reauthorizes loan guarantees to Israel through 2030; and Section 11208(d) reauthorizes annual monetary caps for U.S. additions to the War Reserve Stockpile for Allies program, including the stockpile in Israel, through FY2027 (at $500 mi l l i o n p er y e a r) . P . L .119 - 4 d i d n o t in c l u d e ana cco m p an y in g e x pl ana t or y s t a t e m e n t s p ec i f y in g d e f e n se f u n d in g a l l oc a t i o n s a tt h e l in e - i t e m l e v e l . S ec t i o n 1422 o f t h e A c t r e q u i r e d t h eD e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n se, a f t er co n s u l t in g t h eD e f e n se A pp r o p r ia t i o n ss u b co mmi tt ees, t os u bmi tw i t hin 45 d a y s^{'} a s p e n d in g, e x p e n d i t u r e, or o p er a t in g pl a n^{'} f or F Y 2025 a tt h es am e l e v e l o f d e t ai l r e q u i r e df or a d e p a r t m e n t r e p or t k n o w na s B a se f or R e p r o g r ammin g A c t i o n s . I n s p r in g 2025, t h eD e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n ser e l e a se d t h e B a se f or R e p r o g r ammin g A c t i o n sr e p or t, w hi c h co n t ain e d, am o n g o t h er t hin g s,$ 500 million in missile defense for Israel, $47.5 mi l l i o n f or t h e U . S . - I sr a e l ian t i - t u nn e l in g p r o g r am,$ 55 million for the U.S.-Israeli counter-unmanned aerial systems program, and $20 million for ‘emerging technologies’ cooperation.

In the 119th Congress, lawmakers have proposed The United States-Israel Defense Partnership Act of 2025 (H.R. 1229 & S. 554), which would, among other things, authorize additional defense funding for U.S.-Israeli counter-unmanned aerial systems cooperation and anti-tunnel cooperation, and would mandate that the Secretary of Defense engage the ‘Minister of Defense of Israel in a discussion of the process of the ascension of Israel into the national technology and industrial base (as defined in Section 4801 of Title 10, United States Code).’ In the Senate, Senator Bernie Sanders has proposed multiple resolutions disapproving various U.S. arms sales to Israel. As of May 2025, the Senate has voted against discharging the Senate Foreign Relations Committee from further consideration of two resolutions (S.J.Res. 26 and S.J.Res. 33) by votes of 15-83 and 15-82, respectively.

Author: Jeremy M. Sharp, Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs May 28, 2025 | RL33222

Introduction and Background and Recent Trends

Introduction This report provides an overview of U.S. foreign assistance to Israel. It includes a review of past aid programs, data on annual assistance, and analysis of current issues, including a description of key events since the October 7, 2023 Hamas-led attacks against Israel and the ensuing conflicts in Gaza and beyond. The information and foreign aid data in this report are compiled by the Congressional Research Service from a number of resources, including CRS communications with various U.S. government agencies, Foreignassistance.gov, and annual State Department Congressional Budget Justifications. For terminology and abbreviations used in this report, see Appendix A. For general information on Israel, see Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief, by Jim Zanotti.

Background and Recent Trends For over half a century, the United States and Israel have maintained strong bilateral ties, based on a number of factors, including robust domestic U.S. support for Israel and its security; shared strategic goals in the Middle East; an avowed mutual commitment to democratic values; and historical ties dating from U.S. support for the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. U.S. foreign aid has been a major component in cementing and reinforcing these ties. U.S. officials and many lawmakers have long considered Israel to be a vital partner in the region, and U.S. aid packages for Israel have reflected this calculation. Some U.S. citizens have worked to cultivate U.S. support for Israel since its creation in 1948. Since the 1973 Yom Kippur War, advocates for Israel have engaged in organized, broad-based domestic efforts to foster bipartisan support in Congress for the bilateral relationship, including for U.S. aid to Israel.

Table 1. Total U.S. Foreign Aid Obligations to Israel: 1946-2025 (current, or non-inflation-adjusted, U.S. dollars in millions)

1946-2020: Military $104, 506.200∣ E co n o mi c$ 34,347.500 | Missile Defense $7, 411.409∣ T o t a l$ 146,265.110
2021: Military $3, 300.000∣ E co n o mi c - ∣ M i ss i l eD e f e n se$ 500.000 | Total $3,800.000
2022: Military $3, 300.000∣ E co n o mi c - ∣ M i ss i l eD e f e n se$ 1,500.000 | Total $4,800.000
2023: Military $3, 300.000∣ E co n o mi c - ∣ M i ss i l eD e f e n se$ 500.000 | Total $3,800.000
2024: Military $6, 800.000∣ E co n o mi c - ∣ M i ss i l eD e f e n se$ 5,700.000 | Total $12,500.000
2025: Military $3, 300.000∣ E co n o mi c - ∣ M i ss i l eD e f e n se$ 500.000 | Total $3,800.000
Total: Military $124, 506.200∣ E co n o mi c$ 34,347.500 | Missile Defense $16, 111.409∣ T o t a l$ 174,965.110

Sources: U.S. Overseas Loans and Grants (Greenbook), Foreign Assistance.gov, the U.S. State Department, and the Missile Defense Agency. Notes: The Greenbook figures do not include missile defense funding provided by the Department of Defense. According to State Department/USAID Data Services as of January 2025, in constant 2024 U.S. dollars (inflation-adjusted), total U.S. aid to Israel obligated from 1946-2024 is an estimated $298 billion.

U.S. Military Aid Policy to Israel During Wartime: 2023-2025

Over the past few years, some Members of Congress have become more openly critical of U.S. military aid to Israel and have focused more on issues of Palestinian human rights. This trend has accelerated since the Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023 and the ensuing war in Gaza, with its associated humanitarian crisis. At the same time, many other Members of Congress have continued to voice support of continued U.S. support for Israel. Congressional majorities have continued to vote consistently in favor of U.S. military aid to Israel through the appropriations process, though some Members have expressed opposition to unconditional U.S. security assistance by, for example, more frequently voting for resolutions of disapproval aimed at halting certain U.S. arms sales to Israel.

U.S. Military Aid Policy to Israel During Wartime: 2023-2025 Israel and Hamas’s ongoing war in Gaza following the Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023 will likely be a subject of contested scholarly research for decades within the larger ambit of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. One possible subtopic may be how U.S. officials and lawmakers treated U.S. military aid to Israel during the war. In contrast to routinely publishing U.S. security cooperation ‘fact sheets’ that summarized assistance for Ukraine in its war with Russia, the Department of State’s Bureau of Political-Military Affairs under the Biden Administration did not publish a summary regarding conflict-related assistance for Israel until January 20, 2025. The following is a narrative description based on open sources of important events that have transpired throughout the war pertaining to U.S. assistance to Israel within the Biden and Trump Administrations and Congress.

President Biden’s Immediate Response In the immediate aftermath of the Hamas-led October 7, 2023 attacks against Israel, President Joe Biden announced that his Administration would surge ‘additional military assistance, including ammunition and interceptors to replenish Iron Dome’ so that ‘Israel does not run out of these critical assets to defend its cities and its citizens.’ President Biden’s order resulted in hundreds of aircraft deliveries and sea shipments to Israel of tens of thousands of tons of munitions and weapons systems. When U.S. resupply operations began in October 2023, President Biden emphasized ‘the critical need for Israel to operate by the laws of war. That means protecting civilians in combat as best as they can.’ In an October 2023 Oval Office speech, President Biden announced an emergency supplemental budget request to support U.S. partners, including Ukraine and Israel; the President sought over $14 billion in Israel-related funding.

The United States ‘Leases’ Its Own Iron Dome Batteries Back to Israel After receiving two bipartisan congressional letters calling on the Biden Administration to provide Israel with two Iron Dome batteries previously purchased by the U.S. Army, the Administration announced on October 24, 2023 that it would transfer the batteries to Israel; the Pentagon did not publicly indicate the terms and legal authorities underpinning the planned transfer. According to one U.S. defense official, the Iron Dome agreement was conducted as a ‘cost to lease under an FMS [foreign military sales] case: [It] was the fastest way to get Israel the Iron Dome batteries and the missiles.’

Early Congressional Attempts to Condition Aid Several months into the war, as Palestinian civilian casualties mounted, some Members of Congress began to call for conditioning aid to Israel. In December 2023, Senator Bernie Sanders introduced S.Res. 504, a privileged resolution, which would have mandated that the State Department provide Congress with information on Israel’s human rights practices within 30 days of passage, pursuant to Section 502B(c) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. After receiving any such report, Congress, by joint resolution, may act to terminate, restrict, or continue security assistance to Israel. On January 16, 2024, the Senate voted 72-11 to table a motion to discharge the Senate Foreign Relations Committee from further consideration of S.Res. 504. In addition, Senator Chris Van Hollen introduced an amendment to a Senate supplemental appropriations bill (S.Amdt. 1389 to H.R. 815) which would have, prior to the disbursement of defense articles to a recipient of U.S. security assistance, required the President to obtain assurances that ‘the recipient country will cooperate fully with any United States efforts and United States-supported international efforts to provide humanitarian assistance to civilians in an area of conflict where United States defense articles or defense services are being used by the recipient.’

Biden Administration uses Emergency Authorities for Arms Sales to Israel For the first six months of the war, most U.S. Foreign Military Sales (FMS) and Direct Commercial Sales (DCS) to Israel were previously approved for delivery and accelerated, taken from the U.S. stockpile in Israel (known as War Reserve Stocks for Allies-Israel, or WRSA-I), and/or were not notified to Congress because their dollar value fell below the prior notice threshold for transfers to Israel. Between October and December 2023, there were two FMS cases notified to Congress under emergency circumstances that therefore bypassed congressional review.

Biden Administration’s National Security Memorandum 20 Amidst continued international scrutiny of Israel’s conduct during the war, the Biden Administration took additional steps aimed at promoting adherence to international law and accountability for U.S. arms deliveries to Israel. In February 2024, President Biden issued NSM-20, a National Security Memorandum requiring that prior to the transfer of any U.S. defense article, the Departments of State and Defense must obtain ‘credible and reliable’ written assurances from the recipient country that it will use any such defense articles in accordance with international humanitarian law and, as applicable, other international law. It also required that in any area where such defense articles are used, the ‘recipient country will facilitate and not arbitrarily deny, restrict, or otherwise impede the transport or delivery’ of humanitarian assistance. In May 2024, the Biden Administration released its report to Congress under Section 2 of NSM-20, assessing that defense articles covered under NSM-20 have been used in instances inconsistent with IHL obligations or established best practices, but assessing Israel’s assurances to be ‘credible and reliable so as to allow the provision of defense articles covered under NSM-20 to continue.’

Congress Passes Supplemental Appropriations for Israel Between 2023 and 2024, Congress considered and passed multiple versions of supplemental legislation. In March 2024, Congress passed P.L. 118-47, the Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2024 ( $3.3 bi l l i o n F M F,$ 500 million missile defense). Following Iran’s April 13, 2024 aerial attacks, Congress passed P.L. 118-50, which included $3.5 bi l l i o nin F M F f or I sr a e l,$ 4.0 billion for missile defense, and $1.2 billion for Iron Beam.

Table 2. U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel During the Gaza War (in millions of current U.S. dollars)

P.L. 118-50, Division A (Israel Security Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2024): FMF $3, 500.00∣ M i ss i l eD e f e n se$ 4,000.00 | Missile Defense - Iron Beam $1,200.00 | Other n/a
P.L. 118-47 (Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2024): FMF $3, 300.00∣ M i ss i l eD e f e n se$ 500.00 | Missile Defense - Iron Beam n/a | Other $95.50
P.L. 118-42 (Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2024): FMF n/a | Missile Defense n/a | Missile Defense - Iron Beam n/a | Other $13.00
Total: FMF $6, 800.00∣ M i ss i l eD e f e n se$ 4,500.00 | Missile Defense - Iron Beam $1, 200.00∣ O t h er$ 108.50

Wartime Developments: 2024-2025

Biden Administration Reviews Sales of Aerial Munitions to Israel In spring 2024, as Israel prepared for a ground offensive in southern Gaza (Rafah), U.S. officials pressed Israel not to proceed without planning for civilian safety. In early May, President Biden paused a shipment of 2,000-pound and 500-pound bombs. The 500-pound bombs were later released, but 2,000-pound bombs remained under review through the end of Biden’s term.

International Restrictions on Arms Sales to/from Israel Other nations also suspended or reduced arms exports to Israel, including Britain, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain. In October 2024, French President Emmanuel Macron called for halting weapons supplies.

Congressional Opposition to Biden’s ‘Arms Embargo’ In May 2024, the House passed H.R. 8369, the Israel Security Assistance Support Act, prohibiting FY2024 or earlier funds from being used to withhold defense items to Israel.

Biden Administration and Key Members of Congress Approve F-15 Sale In August 2024, the Administration notified Congress of five potential FMS packages totaling over $20 bi l l i o n, in c l u d in g u pt o 50 F - 15 I A ai r cr a f t f or$ 18.82 billion. In November 2024, Israel and Boeing signed a contract to acquire 25 F-15IA fighters for over $5 billion.

Biden Administration Warning to Israel over Gaza Humanitarian Aid On October 13, 2024, senior U.S. officials sent a letter demanding concrete measures within 30 days to surge humanitarian aid into Gaza. In November 2024, the State Department concluded Israel was not in violation of U.S. law.

Senate Considers Resolutions of Disapproval In November 2024, the Senate voted against discharging resolutions of disapproval (S.J.Res. 111, 113, 115) to block arms sales.

Trump Administration Actions (2025)

In late January 2025, President Trump released the hold on 1,800 MK-84 2,000-pound bombs and exempted Israel from a broad foreign aid freeze.
On February 7, 2025, the Trump Administration formally notified Congress of four sales totaling $8.4 bi l l i o n, in c l u d in g$ 6.75 billion for precision kits.
Lawmakers introduced H.R. 1229 and S. 554 (United States-Israel Defense Partnership Act of 2025).
On February 21, 2025, the Trump Administration rescinded NSM-20.
On February 28, 2025, Trump declared an emergency under Section 36(b) of the AECA to expedite $4 billion in arms sales (including D9 bulldozers).
In March 2025, export licenses were issued for rifle sales to the Israeli National Police.
On April 3, 2025, the Senate rejected discharge motions for S.J.Res. 26 and S.J.Res. 33 (15-83 and 15-82).
By May 27, 2025, the Israeli Defense Ministry reported that the U.S. had dispatched 800 transport planes and 140 ships delivering over 90,000 tons of armaments since October 2023.

U.S. Aid and Israel’s Advanced Military Technology & QME

U.S. Aid and Israel’s Advanced Military Technology Almost all current U.S. aid to Israel is military assistance. U.S. military aid has helped transform Israel’s armed forces and built its domestic defense industry into one of the top global arms exporters (ranking 8th worldwide 2020-2024 per SIPRI). Key defense firms include Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI), Rafael, and Elbit Systems. Major recent export deals include David’s Sling to Finland ( $330 M), A r r o w 3 t o G er man y ($ 4.3B), and Barak MX to Slovakia ($579.1M).

Qualitative Military Edge (QME) U.S. military aid is designed to maintain Israel’s QME over regional adversaries, codified in 2008 in the Naval Vessel Transfer Act (P.L. 110-429). The law defines QME, requires a 4-year assessment, and mandates determinations that any arms sales to other Middle Eastern countries will not adversely affect Israel’s QME.

U.S. Bilateral Military Aid and Memoranda of Understanding (MOU)

Brief History of MOUs on U.S. Aid to Israel

1999-2008 MOU (Clinton): $26.7 bi l l i o n t o t a l ($ 21.3 billion military aid); phased out economic grant aid.
2009-2018 MOU (G.W. Bush): $30 billion in military aid; permitted up to 26.3% in Off-Shore Procurement (OSP).
2019-2028 MOU (Obama): $38 bi l l i o n t o t a l ($ 33 billion FMF, $5 billion missile defense). Phases out OSP completely by FY2028.

Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and Arms Sales Israel spends approximately one-third of its annual FMF on Direct Commercial Contracts. Israel also utilizes ‘cash flow financing’ under Section 23 of the AECA to schedule payments across multi-year contracts. Key major procurement platforms include:

F-35 Joint Strike Fighter: 50 ordered across three contracts (39 delivered by Jan 2025) plus LOA for 25 additional aircraft ($3B total).
F-15IA: 25 ordered from Boeing in November 2024 for $5.2 billion, delivery starting 2031.
KC-46A Pegasus: 4 tankers contracted for $927 million, deliveries expected 2025/2026.
CH-53K Heavy Lift Helicopters: 12 contracted for $2 billion, delivery anticipated 2025-2026.
Excess Defense Articles (EDA): Total of $6.6 billion provided since 1992.

Defense Budget Appropriations for Missile Defense & Other Cooperative Programs

U.S.-Israeli Missile Defense Programs Israel operates a four-layered active missile defense network:

Iron Dome: Short-range anti-rocket/artillery/mortar system (intercept range 2.5-43 miles). U.S. funding exceeds $6 billion.
David’s Sling: Mid-range rocket and cruise missile defense (25-186 miles). Over $3.8 billion in U.S. contributions.
Arrow II: Upper-atmospheric interceptor for medium-range ballistic missiles.
Arrow III: Exo-atmospheric interceptor co-developed by IAI and Boeing ($1.5 billion appropriated).
Iron Beam: High-energy laser interception system under development with Rafael and Lockheed Martin ($1.2 billion appropriated in FY2024 supplemental).

Emergency U.S. Stockpile in Israel (WRSA-I) War Reserve Stocks for Allies-Israel is a U.S.-owned, Israeli-maintained stockpile authorized under Section 514 of the FAA. In 2022-2023 and 2025, the U.S. withdrew 155mm shells and Patriot missiles for Ukraine. During the Gaza War, emergency transfers were executed for tank cartridges and artillery rounds.

Other Cooperative Programs

Anti-Tunnel Defense: Authorized under FY2016 NDAA, appropriated $415 million total through FY2025.
Counter-UAS and Directed Energy: Authorized under FY2020 NDAA, appropriated $183 million total through FY2025.
Binational Foundations: BIRD ( $396 M a w a r d e d a cr oss 1, 070 p r o j ec t s), B S F (13, 829 g r an t ees), B A R D ($ 345M disbursed), BIRD Energy ( $29.7 M U . S . f u n d in g), E n er g y C e n t er ($ 28M U.S. funding), BIRD HLS ( $17 M U . S . f u n d in g), B I R D C y b er ($ 12M U.S. funding).
Migration and Refugee Assistance (MRA): $1.74 bi l l i o n t o t a l s in ce 1973 ($ 614.3 million since FY2000).
Loan Guarantees: Authorized through FY2030 ( $4.1 B i ss u e d,$ 3.814B authorized balance remaining).
American Schools and Hospitals Abroad (ASHA): $3 -$ 5 million annually historically.

Aid Restrictions, Legislative Prohibitions, and Appendix Tables

Aid Restrictions and Possible Violations

Arms Export Control Act (AECA): Restricts arms use to legitimate self-defense and requires End-Use Monitoring (EUM).
Section 502B of FAA: Prohibits security assistance to countries engaging in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights.
Leahy Law (Section 620M FAA): Prohibits assistance to foreign security force units with credible information of gross violations of human rights.
Section 620I of FAA: Prohibits assistance to countries that prohibit or restrict U.S. humanitarian assistance.
Geographic Restrictions: Funds restricted to Israel’s pre-June 5, 1967 borders for certain programs (MRA, loan guarantees).

Appendix Summary:

Table A-1: P.L. 119-4 Continuing Resolution ($450.3M OSP, reauthorized loan guarantees through 2030, WRSA-I through FY2027).
Table A-2: P.L. 118-159 FY2025 NDAA authorizations ( $110 M I r o n D o m e,$ 40M David’s Sling, $50 M A r r o w 3 co - p r o d u c t i o n,$ 300M joint missile defense RDT&E).
Table A-3: P.L. 118-50 FY2024 Emergency Supplemental ( $4 B I r o n D o m e / D a v i d^{'} s S l in g,$ 1.2B Iron Beam, $3.5B FMF).
Table A-4: P.L. 118-47 FY2024 Consolidated Appropriations ( $3.3 B F M F,$ 500M missile defense).
Table B-1: Chronology of Emergency and Supplemental Aid acts (1973–2024).